2 Abstract This study explores the construction, contestation, and transformation of urban narratives in the digital age, focusing on Portland, Oregon, during and after the Black Lives Matter protests from in the second half of 2020. Urban narratives, shaped by physical spaces, symbolic meanings, and collective memories, significantly influence a city’s identity, reputation, and socioeconomic outcomes. With the rise of digital platforms like Reddit, Twitter, and Meta, these narratives are increasingly shaped in virtual spaces where hashtags, viral content, and user-generated discourse amplify diverse perspectives and emotions. Integrating communication theories such as symbolic interactionism, framing theory, and the narrative paradigm, this study examines how digital discourse interacts with physical spaces to construct, contest, and transform urban narratives. Integrating communication theories such as symbolic interactionism, framing theory, and the narrative paradigm, this study examines how digital discourse intersects with physical space to influence urban identity. Rather than centering on traditional urban design frameworks, this research focuses on stakeholder communications—specifically how community activists, police officials, and media institutions used digital platforms to shape public perceptions of protest sites, neighborhoods, and civic landmarks. Through qualitative analysis of user-generated and institutional content, the study finds that while media and law enforcement tend to frame protests around disruption and authority, grassroots voices on platforms like Reddit offer emotionally charged, first-person accounts that reframe these spaces as sites of resistance, solidarity, and social transformation. Communication Theories and Urban Narratives Urban narratives are dynamic constructs shaped by the interplay of physical spaces, symbolic meanings, social interactions, and collective memories. These narratives profoundly influence public perceptions, driving socioeconomic outcomes such as investment, tourism, and migration—or hindering growth and recovery during crises (Lynch, 1960; Bruner, 1991; Anholt, 2007). In a globalized, hyper-connected world, city agencies are called to manage their identities strategically, particularly during moments of disruption that can dramatically reshape public beliefs and reputations (Harvey, 1989; Florida, 2002). This study focuses on how digital platforms and social media have become pivotal arenas where urban narratives are constructed, contested, and transformed. Using Portland as a case study, the research examines how the city’s reputation evolved during and after the Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests. Portland garnered intense national and international scrutiny during this period, with conflicting narratives emerging about its identity. Some narratives portrayed Portland as a city engulfed in chaos, violence, and lawlessness, fueled by nightly unrest and clashing with law enforcement. Others framed it as a hub of activism and community solidarity, where residents mobilized to demand racial justice and police reform. Conservative media and police sources emphasized destruction and disorder, while progressive outlets and grassroots voices highlighted resilience, protest art, and mutual aid. These narratives competed in real time across platforms like Reddit, Twitter, and national news outlets, shaping drastically different understandings of what Portland represented during this crisis. 3 The goal of this research is to understand how language, framing, and storytelling from key stakeholders contributed to Portland’s urban narrative in the context of racial unrest. Specifically, this study compares how user-generated discourse on a digital platform differed from language from the media and the Portland police. It also explores the language used, information kept, omitted, and highlighted, and how they are different depending on the communication channel and who is sending the message. This study ultimately aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of how urban narratives evolve in response to social crises, offering a framework for analysis and understanding of crisis events and communication. Understanding how urban narratives are transformed necessitates comprehensive explorations of key communication theories. These theories explain how meanings are constructed, shared, and interpreted by human beings. Communication theories like symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), framing theory (Entman, 1993), and the narrative paradigm (Fisher, 1984) offer frameworks to understand how stakeholders craft and disseminate narratives that shape urban reputations. By examining the strategic use of language by key protest players like government officials, media outlets, and community members, we can gain deeper insight into the mechanisms that influence urban narratives. Symbolic Interactionism (Blumer, 1969) shows us cities derive meaning not only from their physical characteristics but also from the social interactions and interpretations of their inhabitants. In the digital age, these meanings are increasingly shaped by online interactions. Social media platforms serve as virtual extensions of urban spaces where users collectively construct and contest meanings. Papacharissi’s (2015) concept of affective publics complements this by showing how online communities, driven by shared emotions, shape narratives about cities. Emotional responses—grief, anger, pride—don’t just show up in narratives; they drive them. Online communities form around those emotions, pushing certain stories forward. On Reddit, posts often focused on direct experience—what people saw, felt, or feared. These kinds of posts reframed spaces like downtown Portland not just as protest zones but as places of shared struggle, mutual aid, and solidarity. Digital platforms enable the rapid formation of affective publics, or online communities unified by emotions and values. Affective Publics and Algorithmic Influence (Papacharissi, 2015; Gillespie, 2018) states that publics play a crucial role in amplifying narratives during moments of crisis. Gillespie’s (2018) exploration of algorithmic influence highlights how these platforms prioritize certain narratives, shaping what becomes visible or suppressed in the public sphere. Together, these theories emphasize that digital presence and strategic engagement are critical for stakeholders seeking to influence urban narratives. Framing theory (Entman, 1993) demonstrates how selective emphasis can shape public perception by amplifying certain aspects of an urban environment while downplaying others. In digital contexts, framing occurs through posts, hashtags, and viral imagery that highlight specific narratives. Gillespie’s (2018) work on algorithmic influence extends this by showing how digital platforms determine which frames gain prominence. For instance, in Portland’s case, hashtags like #PortlandProtests or #BLM can elevate specific narratives, shaping collective interpretations of the city’s identity. These narrative frames often center on specific urban elements, such as landmarks like the Justice Center, or protest paths through downtown, which become symbolic 4 flashpoints. By applying Lynch’s framework, we can trace how digital framing redefines the meaning of these physical spaces, transforming them into narrative anchors in public discourse. Narrative Paradigm (Fisher, 1984) tells us that humans are storytellers by nature, making sense of the world through narratives. In the digital age, social media platforms like Twitter, Reddit, and Meta serve as storytelling arenas where users craft, share, and evaluate urban narratives. Fisher’s paradigm aligns with Papacharissi’s affective publics, emphasizing that the emotional resonance and coherence of online narratives determine their impact. For Portland, viral posts and user-driven narratives that align with residents’ experiences become powerful tools in shaping the city’s reputation. Traditional media still plays a role, but digital platforms have shifted how stories get told. City officials, police, and news outlets continue to shape narratives using official language and press releases. But those messages now compete with informal, grassroots storytelling that can move faster and feel more authentic. During the 2020 protests, for example, the Portland Police Bureau framed protest locations as dangerous and chaotic. At the same time, Reddit users described the same spaces as organized, creative, and essential to the movement. These narrative clashes show how spaces like paths, nodes, and districts take on new meaning depending on who is talking and who is listening. This shift brings opportunity and risk. Digital storytelling makes space for voices that might not otherwise be heard. But it also opens the door to misinformation and polarized frames. As Bourdieu (1991) argues, narrative is not neutral—it reflects power. In the case of Portland, narratives about specific districts or edges often reflected deeper tensions about who belongs and whose voices shape the story. That makes authenticity—alignment with lived experience—critical, especially when institutions attempt to reframe public perception during or after a crisis. Narratives about cities are shaped not only by geography and events but also by the social positions of those producing and amplifying them. Acker (2006) and Ray (2019) show how race, gender, and class operate within larger systems of inequality, influencing which voices are heard, which are silenced, and how events are framed. In the digital conversation, marginalized voices can gain visibility through counter-narratives, challenging dominant stories about cities. This dynamic is especially relevant in Portland, where issues of equity and representation are central to post-BLM discourse. Acker’s (2006) work on systemic inequalities and Ray’s (2019) analysis of racialized narratives provide critical frameworks for understanding these dynamics. Kavaratzis and Hatch (2013) highlight the importance of participatory branding, where residents are active contributors to constructing a city’s identity. This approach contrasts with top-down branding strategies that often impose narratives disconnected from local realities. Participatory methods draw on the emotional and cultural richness of communities, engaging residents to create narratives that are authentic, resilient, and representative of urban life’s diversity. For Portland, participatory branding means rethinking how nodes like Pioneer Courthouse Square—a symbolic gathering place for protests and events—are framed in narratives. These nodes extend beyond their physical form to become digital gathering spaces on platforms like Reddit, where grassroots narratives amplify or contest official messaging. Landmarks, such as 5 the city’s iconic “Keep Portland Weird” mural, similarly transcend their physical presence to act as anchors for narratives in viral posts and hashtags. These spaces are central to how both residents and external audiences perceive Portland’s identity. Effective place branding aligns narratives with tangible policies and initiatives that reinforce a city’s story. For example, a city positioning itself as a hub of innovation must back this claim with investments in education, infrastructure, and social equity (Adams & Tiesdell, 2013; Florida, 2002). Without these structural alignments, branding risks being dismissed as inauthentic or disconnected from the lived realities of its residents. In Portland, this means addressing the tension between the city’s reputation as a progressive hub and the systemic inequalities highlighted during the BLM protests. Branding that celebrates Portland’s creativity and activism must also acknowledge the social challenges present in its districts and edges. Participatory branding approaches—where residents co-create narratives that align with their lived experiences—are essential to navigating these tensions. Urban narrative transformation holds significant potential to redefine how cities are perceived and experienced, yet the process is rife with challenges. These challenges include balancing authenticity with aspirational branding, addressing socio-economic disparities, and managing the inherent fluidity of narratives in the digital age. Successfully navigating these complexities requires cities to align their narratives with lived realities while addressing the diverse needs of residents and external audiences. One of the most persistent challenges in urban narrative transformation is finding a balance between authenticity and aspirational branding. Cities often feel compelled to construct narratives that emphasize economic success, innovation, or cultural richness to attract investment and global attention. However, aspirational narratives can sometimes overshadow lived experiences, leading to a disconnect that erodes trust and credibility. Anholt (2007) and Govers & Go (2009) emphasize that authenticity is essential for successful place branding. Narratives that fail to resonate with local realities risk being dismissed as superficial or opportunistic. For instance, a city marketed as a vibrant cultural hub must also address issues like inequality or housing shortages. Without alignment to tangible actions, aspirational narratives can alienate residents and foster skepticism among external audiences. To navigate this tension, cities must create branding strategies that are aspirational yet grounded in authenticity. This involves aligning narratives with visible investments in education, infrastructure, and social equity (Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013). By balancing global aspirations with local realities, cities can create cohesive urban identities that inspire external audiences while building trust internally. Socio-economic disparities pose significant challenges to urban narrative transformation, complicating efforts to craft inclusive and representative stories. Cities that emphasize progress or development often risk marginalizing lower-income communities, exacerbating inequality, and eroding the authenticity of their narratives. Gentrification intensifies these challenges by displacing long-standing communities and threatening cultural heritage. Florida (2002) notes that creative and economic hubs often attract affluent populations, which can dilute the multifaceted identities of urban spaces. O’Connor and 6 Gu (2014) emphasize that commodification of neighborhoods often results in the loss of historical and social significance, creating exclusive narratives that alienate marginalized groups. Addressing these disparities requires participatory approaches to branding that engage diverse voices in constructing urban narratives (Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013). By involving historically underserved communities, cities can foster more inclusive narratives that reflect the complexity of urban life. Blumer’s (1969) symbolic interactionism reinforces the importance of aligning narratives with residents’ lived experiences, fostering a sense of ownership and belonging. This inclusivity is critical for crafting sustainable urban identities that address inequality while building cohesion. Urban narratives are inherently fluid, continuously reshaped by shifting social, economic, and cultural forces. The rapid pace of globalization and digitalization has amplified this fluidity, making it challenging for cities to craft narratives that endure over time. Harvey’s (1989) concept of “time-space compression” underscores how the acceleration of cultural and economic exchanges transforms urban perceptions, often at unprecedented speeds. The digital age further complicates this dynamic. McQuire (2008) highlights that digital platforms reshape urban storytelling, allowing user-generated content to rapidly alter a city’s image. Viral posts featuring specific landmarks or neighborhoods can quickly redefine a narrative, making it difficult for stakeholders to maintain consistency. This temporal volatility poses challenges for cities seeking to align their internal and external identities. To address this, cities must develop flexible and adaptive branding strategies. Participatory approaches that engage residents and stakeholders in continuous dialogue allow narratives to evolve organically (Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013). Additionally, leveraging digital tools to monitor public sentiment and adapt messaging in real time ensures that narratives remain relevant in a constantly changing landscape. Digital platforms have democratized urban storytelling, allowing diverse voices to shape narratives that were once dominated by institutional actors. Platforms like Reddit, Twitter, and Meta enable grassroots contributions that challenge traditional branding efforts, offering new opportunities for cities to engage with their audiences. At the same time, these platforms present risks, including the spread of misinformation and the amplification of polarized narratives. Cities can harness the power of digital platforms by actively engaging in online discussions, addressing misinformation transparently, and amplifying grassroots stories that align with their broader branding goals. Zhang and Zhao (2019) emphasize the importance of real-time engagement, noting that social media allows cities to adjust their narratives dynamically in response to shifting sentiment. This adaptability is crucial for maintaining narrative coherence and credibility in a volatile digital environment. Resilient urban narratives balance aspiration with authenticity, inclusivity, and adaptability. To achieve this, cities must align their branding efforts with lived realities, integrate diverse voices, and leverage digital tools to remain responsive to change. Participatory approaches that engage residents as co-creators foster trust and ensure that narratives reflect the complexity of urban life. 7 Incorporating enduring values such as resilience, inclusivity, and sustainability further strengthens urban narratives, providing stability amid temporal shifts. Rantanen and Kavaratzis (2013) argue that coherence between a city’s internal identity and external image ensures long-term success. By embracing these principles, cities can craft narratives that resonate with both local and global audiences while adapting to the evolving challenges of the digital age. Spatial Framework: Updating Lynch’s Urban Elements Urban spaces are dynamic constructs, combining physical form and the meanings ascribed to them by individual communities (Lynch, 1960; Blumer, 1969; Hall, 1997). Kevin Lynch’s seminal work, The Image of the City (1960), introduced the concept of a city’s “imageability,” defined by five key elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks. These elements, which anchor collective perceptions of cities, gain new dimensions in the digital age or during times of crisis. For this case study, I will explore how urban spaces and their symbolic elements—paths, nodes, districts, edges, and landmarks—are reinterpreted and redefined in times of crisis, and in a digital age. Building on Lynch’s (1960) framework for understanding urban spaces, I will analyze how these physical components of cities serve as anchors for urban narratives during times of crisis. Lynch’s Urban Elements (1960) Paths Definition (Lynch) Edges Boundaries or seams like rivers, walls, or architectural shifts. Districts Recognizable areas like neighborhoods or cultural hubs. Nodes Focal points of activity like plazas, intersections, transit hubs. Landmarks Recognizable symbols like monuments, statues, buildings. Streets, walkways, transit lines guiding physical movement. Transformation During Crisis/Protest Paths become conduits of communication and organization for activists, enhancing mobilization and visibility. Edges are redefined through digital debates highlighting exclusion, surveillance, or contested spaces. Districts are reframed as contested political or cultural areas, reshaped by digital discourse and activism. Nodes become central points of activism and narrative convergence, both online and offline. Landmarks are redefined as symbols of resistance or oppression, depending on 8 their use in digital storytelling. For Portland, a city whose identity has been shaped by national attention during and after the BLM protests, Lynch’s framework provides a lens to examine how physical and digital spaces interact and reinforce narratives. By integrating this spatial analysis though insights into the role of digital platforms, this study aims to uncover the mechanisms through which cities navigate identity, crisis, and transformation in a hyper-connected world. 1.​ Paths Traditionally defined as streets, walkways, and transit lines, paths serve as channels for movement and perception (Lynch, 1960). In the digital age, paths extend to the virtual highways created by hashtags, trending topics, and social media shares. For example, hashtags like #PortlandProtests on Twitter act as pathways that guide global discourse about Portland’s identity by rapidly disseminating information and framing events in real-time. Unlike physical pathways, which facilitate bodily movement and tangible access, digital pathways enable the spread of narratives across vast distances, transcending geographic limitations. Adams and Tiesdell’s (2013) emphasis on enhancing navigability applies not only to physical spaces but also to digital pathways that shape how narratives about cities are accessed and shared. 2.​ Edges Edges are the boundaries or seams that delineate different urban areas, such as rivers, walls, or shifts in architectural style (Lynch, 1960). For example, debates about gentrification, police presence, or restricted access on platforms like Reddit highlight symbolic boundaries that reflect broader struggles over who feels included or excluded in urban narratives. Unlike physical edges, which are often fixed, digital edges are constantly renegotiated and contested as users debate legitimacy, safety, and belonging. Blumer’s (1969) symbolic interactionism suggests that such edges are socially constructed, making their interpretation in digital discourse a powerful tool for understanding urban identities. 3.​ Districts Medium-to-large sections of a city, like neighborhoods, business zones, or cultural hubs, serve as cohesive and recognizable areas (Lynch, 1960). In digital contexts, districts are reimagined not only through discussions tied to specific locations but also through interest-based communities without physical boundaries. While Reddit discussions about Portland neighborhoods provide a place-based perspective where users debate gentrification, safety, or protest impacts, broader online communities focus on topics like activism or urban policy also influence how these districts are framed. Unlike physical districts, digital districts are fluid and dynamic, allowing narratives about places to be shaped by both residents and distant observers, complicating the notion of local identity. 4.​ Nodes 9 Nodes are focal points where activities converge, such as plazas, intersections, or transit hubs (Lynch, 1960). In the digital age, nodes extend to virtual hubs like Twitter threads, Reddit comment sections, or viral hashtags that attract attention from diverse groups. Unlike districts, which are defined by community coherence, nodes are characterized by interaction, contention, and negotiation—places where differing perspectives meet, clash, or evolve. For example, Reddit threads responding to police press releases or news articles often serve as nodes where various stakeholders—activists, critics, and observers—debate the legitimacy of official narratives. Castells (1983) highlights how nodes can become sites of activism and social movements, both in physical protests and their digital amplification. 5.​ Landmarks Easily recognizable features like monuments or statues anchor urban narratives by embodying historical or cultural significance (Lynch, 1960). Harvey (1989) notes the commodification of landmarks, which now includes their symbolic role in digital storytelling. For Portland, viral photos or memes featuring iconic landmarks during the BLM protests serve as powerful narrative devices, influencing perceptions of the city globally. Lynch’s elements, originally focused on the physical environment, now intersect with the virtual spaces created by social media. This intersection expands the psychological and emotional dimensions of urban identity, which Lynch (1960) and Silva and Smith (2015, 2016) describe as the “affective infrastructure” of urban life. Positive emotional connections fostered through well-defined districts or iconic landmarks can strengthen a city’s identity, while disordered or unclear digital representations may provoke anxiety or skepticism. Social media platforms further complicate this interplay by amplifying narratives through user-generated content. Papacharissi’s (2015) concept of affective publics highlights how digital communities form around shared emotions and collective identities, reshaping urban spaces in real-time. For example, Portland’s identity as a city of resilience or unrest is not solely shaped by its physical landmarks or streets but by how these elements are represented, debated, and contested in digital spaces. Portland as a Case Study Portland’s prominence during the BLM protests and its ongoing struggle to redefine its identity in the aftermath make it a compelling case study. By analyzing how media and digital platforms craft and contest the meanings of its urban spaces, this research seeks to uncover how cities navigate identity, crisis, and transformation in the digital age. Reddit, Twitter, and Meta play pivotal roles in this process, reframing Portland’s physical spaces into symbolic arenas for global discourse and local action. Portland officials have attempted to reframe downtown paths and landmarks as symbols of resilience and progress in response to national attention following the BLM protests. However, their success depends on alignment with lived experiences and the emotional resonance of their messaging. 10 Traditional and digital media play a dual role: they amplify official narratives but also frame alternative perspectives that shape public opinion. Media coverage of Portland’s downtown protests amplified certain nodes (such as key protest sites) and paths (like main streets used during demonstrations), influencing how these spaces are perceived globally. Digital platforms, meanwhile, allow individuals and smaller organizations to bypass traditional media and directly shape public discourse. Grassroots storytelling offers authentic insights into lived experiences, often reflecting a city’s challenges and opportunities in ways that official messaging cannot. For Portland, community-driven narratives on platforms like Reddit have focused on specific districts and edges, such as debates about gentrification or housing inequality. These stories are powerful because they are relational, grounded in personal experience, and frequently resonate more deeply with audiences than institutional narratives (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953). Marginalized communities bring essential perspectives that highlight overlooked or suppressed narratives, emphasizing issues of equity and social justice. Castells (1983) and Somers (1994) underscore the importance of these voices in constructing holistic urban identities. During Portland’s BLM protests, for example, narratives shared by Black residents and activists on Twitter brought attention to edges of exclusion and systemic inequities that traditional media or official narratives often minimized. For Portland, emotional connections to spaces like protest paths, community nodes, and cultural landmarks have amplified its identity as a city of activism and resilience. Silva and Smith (2015) expand on this idea by showing how collective emotional experiences tied to urban environments foster shared identity and belonging. Digital platforms magnify these emotional narratives, allowing them to spread rapidly and influence perceptions globally. Whether through viral images of protests, personal stories shared on Reddit, or threads on Twitter, emotional resonance ensures that these narratives endure. Portland’s experience demonstrates how informal, grassroots stories shared on platforms like Reddit and Twitter can rival or even overshadow official narratives. These platforms allow residents and communities to reclaim their voices, highlight inequities, and demand change. At the same time, they pose challenges, including misinformation, echo chambers, and the erosion of trust in institutional narratives. By focusing on the stakeholders shaping Portland’s urban narrative in the wake of the BLM protests, this study provides insights into how cities can navigate these new dynamics. It examines the interplay between institutional and grassroots storytelling, the emotional resonance of urban spaces, and the role of digital platforms in amplifying or challenging traditional power structures. Understanding these mechanisms is critical for cities striving to craft authentic and inclusive narratives in the digital age. Simon Anholt’s Competitive Identity (2007) provides a foundational framework for cities to manage their global reputation through strategic place branding. At its core, Anholt emphasizes that effective branding must authentically reflect a city’s unique qualities, values, and lived realities, rather than relying on superficial slogans or generic marketing campaigns. In Portland, for example, branding efforts after the BLM protests have grappled with balancing the city’s reputation for progressivism and creativity against its struggles with social equity and protest visibility. Spaces like downtown nodes—key intersections of activity during 11 protests—and iconic landmarks such as murals and public squares have become both physical and symbolic battlegrounds for the city’s identity in the digital age. Methodology and Case Study Framing This study examines how urban narratives are constructed, contested, and transformed through digital platforms, specifically focusing on Portland, Oregon, from December 2019 through December 2020. The research examines how urban reputations are shaped and managed online, focusing on communication strategies used by stakeholders during urban crises. Specifically, the study seeks to understand how digital discourse surrounding Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests shaped public perceptions of Portland, influenced policy decisions, and contributed to tangible transformations of urban spaces. Data was collected from three primary digital sources: 180 Portland Police Bureau (PPB) press releases from their website, 28 Reddit discussions within Portland-focused subreddits with over 150 comments, and 32 mainstream news media articles with photos, videos and long form writing included. These sources were deliberately selected because each represented distinct stakeholders: PPB provided official institutional narratives, Reddit functioned as a central platform for grassroots discourse, and mainstream news served as a mediating force shaping broader public narratives. Initially, the study explored posts from Portland City's Instagram and Facebook accounts. However, these platforms did not produce sufficient relevant content, as their posts primarily featured civic engagement messages rather than responses to specific protest events. Consequently, the primary analytical focus narrowed exclusively to PPB press releases, Reddit discussions, and mainstream news media reports. To enable comparative analysis, matched events, which were defined as specific protest-related incidents documented across multiple sources within similar timeframes, were systematically identified. Portland Police press releases were reviewed to identify mentions of notable protest incidents, including references to violence, law enforcement interventions, and significant disturbances. Concurrently, keyword searches were conducted within Reddit and mainstream news sources using event-specific terms, dates, locations, and references to key protest moments. Incidents discussed by at least two of the three platforms were selected for comparative narrative analysis. This study utilized a qualitative analytical approach explicitly informed by framing theory and narrative theory as discussed in the literature review. Texts were reviewed iteratively, employing open coding followed by thematic analysis to identify recurring narrative frames and linguistic contrasts. The analysis focused on key narrative moments tied directly to major protests or significant urban changes, examining how stakeholders used language and narrative techniques to shape public perception. Careful attention was paid to the following: 12 ●​ How language varied across platforms, including the use of words such as “riot,” “unlawful assembly,” “peaceful protests,” “demonstrations,” and “community mobilization.” ●​ Framing of key actors, exploring differences in how various groups—including protesters, police officers, and public officials—were represented across PPB statements, Reddit conversations, and news media accounts ●​ Event omission and emphasis: The analysis focused on identifying narrative details emphasized by one source but minimized or omitted by another. This comparative approach highlighted the ways selective emphasis or omission of certain details influenced narrative construction across platforms. Texts were iteratively reviewed, beginning with open coding to identify emerging themes, followed by focused thematic analysis informed by framing theory (Entman, 1993) and narrative theory (Fisher, 1984). This interpretive approach prioritized understanding how different stakeholders constructed meaning around identical events. The three discourse sources—police press releases, mainstream news articles, and Reddit threads—were selected precisely because of their differing ideological perspectives and narrative goals. Rather than treating bias as a limitation, this study centers it as a key part of the analysis. These sources reflect competing efforts to shape Portland’s identity, making their tensions, contradictions, and rhetorical strategies central to understanding how urban narratives are constructed, contested, and transformed. Broad Analysis of Protest Narratives in Portland The digital conversation surrounding the Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests in Portland reveals deeply divided narratives and stark differences in language, framing, and emphasis between official statements, digital discussions on Reddit, and the news media. Across these sources, public perception of the protests appears to be shaped by competing representations of violence, legitimacy, and law enforcement authority. The Portland Police Bureau's (PPB’s) press releases tended to frame protests as threats to public safety, focusing on property destruction, violence, and law enforcement challenges. Key patterns in their communication include: ●​ Frequent use of “riot” and “unlawful assembly” to describe large gatherings. This implies the notion that these events were criminal rather than political. ●​ Emphasis on officer injuries and property damage while largely omitting references to police use of force. ●​ Framing of protesters as obstructing public safety, particularly in cases where emergency responses were “complicated” by the unrest. ●​ A lack of acknowledgment of activist sentiments and concerns, treating protests primarily as law enforcement challenges rather than social movements. 13 As an example, on August 17, 2020, a press release from the Portland Police described how protests “complicated police response” to an assault call. This type of language suggested that demonstrators actively hindered public safety efforts instead of highlighting why the protests were happening in the first place. In this instance, this appears to be a framing strategy aligning with institutional crisis communication, where authorities seek to reinforce legitimacy and justify enforcement actions. In a release dated August 16, 2020, titled “UPDATE: Multiple Suspects Charged with Assault During Riot,” the PPB repeatedly used terms like “riot” and “assault on police,” characterizing the event as a breakdown of order rather than a political demonstration. Another press release from August 9 described protesters as “blocking streets” and “throwing objects,” emphasizing disruption and danger while leaving out any mention of the protest’s goals or causes. Similarly, in a statement released on August 17, protests were said to have “complicated police response to an assault,” with language focused on law enforcement’s operational challenges. In all of these examples, police press releases avoided discussion of systemic issues or activist demands, instead framing the events in ways that reinforce institutional legitimacy and justify enforcement. These consistent rhetorical choices reflect a broader strategy aligned with crisis communication, where protest is interpreted through the lens of public order and policing rather than collective action or social critique. PPB’s description follows well-established crisis communication tactics, reinforcing a law-and-order narrative while downplaying or omitting factors that could complicate that framing. This approach aligns with Entman’s (1993) argument that framing operates through selection and emphasis, shaping public interpretation by controlling which elements are made visible and which are left out. Notably, PPB press releases rarely addressed the motivations or demands behind the protests and omitted any mention of community impact or institutional accountability. What is surprising is the consistency of this pattern, even in situations that clearly involved multiple perspectives or gray areas. Across a range of incidents, the language remained focused on law enforcement challenges, using terms like “riot,” “unlawful assembly,” and “assault” to frame events as threats rather than civic expressions. This rhetorical framing positioned the police as reactive agents responding to chaos, rather than participants in a broader social conflict shaped by policy, history, and power dynamics. The physical spaces themselves—downtown intersections, parks, and protest routes—were rarely named explicitly, reducing the visibility of the places being contested and the emotional and historical meanings they carried. By leaving out specific references to recognizable locations like Chapman Square or the Justice Center, the PPB avoided invoking any spatial or symbolic context. This flattening of place and context plays a key role in shaping how 14 the public understands the events, not as part of a larger civic movement tied to place and memory, but as isolated breakdowns in public order. This tone, consistently reinforced by the Portland Police Bureau, appeared to have a broader influence on public perception beyond law enforcement circles. As the protests continued into the fall of 2020, some community leaders and local voices began to echo the PPB’s emphasis on public safety and control. For instance, following a drive-by shooting at Dawson Park, Black community leaders called for increased police presence in the area, despite previous calls within the protest movement for police defunding. The shift in tone by non-police actors reveals the extent to which law-and-order discourse shaped civic dialogue, influencing how even community advocates navigated the balance between safety and justice. Reddit discussions in Portland-focused subreddits (with topics that had a keyword of “BLM” or “George Floyd”) offered a very different framing of the civil unrest: ●​ Police aggression was a dominant theme, with frequent posts highlighting officer misconduct, excessive force, and the militarization of law enforcement. ●​ Language choices differed significantly: Reddit users were more likely to use terms like “peaceful protest,” “community mobilization,” or “demonstration” instead of “riot” or “unrest.” ●​ Criticism of media coverage was common, with activists arguing that news outlets sensationalized violence while ignoring police brutality and activist demands. ●​ Emotional and personal narratives played a large role, with posts focusing on first-hand experiences, injuries, and moments of solidarity rather than the logistical or security concerns emphasized in police statements. For example, in a post discussing a Portland church preserving BLM graffiti, Reddit users framed the act as a peaceful artistic expression of the voiceless and those who were touched by police brutality, while law enforcement communication described graffiti in the context of vandalism and criminal activity. Additional examples from Portland subreddits show how Reddit users reframed both events and physical locations with personal and emotional language. In a widely shared post about a Portland church that preserved BLM graffiti instead of painting over it, users described the act as a symbol of community support and healing—directly contrasting with city or police narratives that labeled similar graffiti as vandalism. Another post, titled “There will be justice for Donovan LaBella,” used a photo of a sunset to accompany a call for police defunding and mental health funding, framing the issue as a matter of public safety and long-overdue accountability. During a discussion about a protester being beaten near a crash site, users debated whether violent acts were isolated incidents or reflective of broader protest culture, with many emphasizing the need for strategic, non-violent organizing over “1AM hooliganism”. Users also frequently criticized how mainstream media covered these events—for example, dismissing 15 coverage that blamed protests for COVID-19 spread and instead highlighting data that challenged that claim . Throughout these discussions, Reddit users engaged directly with city identity, portraying Portland not as a site of chaos, but as a community struggling—imperfectly—to respond to injustice. Mainstream news media tended to land in the middle, acting as an intermediary role shaping public perception. Coverage of the protests varied a lot depending on the news outlet’s editorial stance and apparent political orientations: ●​ Liberal-leaning outlets tended to highlight systemic racism and police misconduct, often amplifying activist voices while framing federal intervention as an escalation of tensions. ●​ Conservative-leaning outlets emphasized lawlessness, violence, and destruction, reinforcing narratives of Portland as a city in decline due to unchecked extremism. ●​ Local Portland media attempted to strike a balance, reporting on both activist demands and public safety concerns, but coverage often reflected economic anxieties, such as the impact of protests on businesses and tourism. Mainstream media coverage often occupied a middle ground between activist and law enforcement narratives, but still advocated for public safety and police control. Local and national stories tended to balance acknowledgment of the movement’s significance with concern over disorder and civic disruption. For example, Inside the Battle for Downtown Portland (The New York Times) described a “predictable pattern” of calm evenings that “gave way to chaos,” combining imagery of tear gas and fires with descriptions of peaceful food distribution and protest speeches earlier in the night. Similarly, OPB’s 50 Days of Protest in Portland highlighted both activist critiques of federal escalation and Portland Police’s claim that protesters had been “co-opted by criminal 16 elements,” quoting Deputy Chief Chris Davis’s assertion that protester actions were “complicating” police efforts . In an article titled Some Protests Against Police Brutality Take a More Confrontational Approach (NYT), reporters juxtaposed activist calls for urgency with residents’ concerns about intimidation and escalation in residential neighborhoods . One piece even framed the city’s challenge as both symbolic and economic, stating the protests were “historic, but damaging”—emphasizing long-term implications for Portland’s image, tourism, and recovery. These examples show how coverage tended to legitimize the protests while still reflecting institutional fears about disorder, allowing both frames to coexist in shaping public perception. Over the course of 2020, language and narrative emphasis changed in all three sources: Early protests (June - July 2020): ●​ PPB focused on “public safety” and controlling unrest. ●​ Reddit discourse framed police as aggressors and escalators of violence. ●​ Media coverage was heavily focused on police-protester clashes. Mid-Protests (July - September 2020): ●​ Federal intervention led to a shift in coverage, with both media and Reddit posts focusing on arrests and aggressive federal tactics. ●​ PPB narratives remained consistent, emphasizing disorder and officer injuries. Late-Protests (October - December 2020): ●​ Reddit discussions reflected exhaustion and internal divisions, debating the effectiveness of ongoing demonstrations. ●​ Media began to emphasize Portland’s “recovery”, shifting attention to economic impacts. ●​ PPB continued portraying unrest as a long-term security threat. Comparing Language, Framing, and Lynch’s Framework During Specific Events As the protests stretched into the fall and winter of 2020, the tone on Reddit began to shift. The urgency that defined the early months started to fade, replaced by a mix of reflection, frustration, and fatigue. Users still engaged deeply, but the energy was different. It became more personal, more symbolic, and sometimes more divided. Even without much institutional support or sympathetic media coverage, users kept working to make meaning out of what was happening around them. 17 On August 16, 2020, a man was pulled from his truck and beaten near a Portland BLM protest. The event was widely reported in national media, with various narratives emerging about whether the attack was politically motivated or an isolated incident of urban violence. Reddit discussions first seemed to engage in a debate about the driver’s role in the confrontation, and dissected current media coverage, which users stated ranged from sensationalized to well-researched journalism. Redditors also mentioned PPB’s communications surrounding the protests, and analyzed their response in a critical manner. While reading Reddit threads, Papacharissi’s (2015) concept of emotion-driven public discourse on digital platforms was at play. In contrast, PPB’s press releases were stripped of emotion, offering a bare-bones account that removed the event from its broader political and social context. The news media’s response to this incident revealed distinct framing strategies across ideological lines. Fox News framed the event primarily through the lens of public disorder, using phrases like “mob mentality” and “anarchist violence” to describe protesters and situating the beating as evidence of a city “losing control.” Their coverage emphasized chaos, destruction, and threats to law enforcement, often detaching the event from the larger protest movement. In contrast, CNN’s reporting placed the incident within the broader context of racial justice protests and police accountability. While the specific event was not central to their coverage, they emphasized long-standing tensions between protesters and law enforcement, citing federal overreach and the role of police militarization. The Oregonian, Portland’s local outlet, struck a more complex balance. Their reporting included on-the-ground details and eyewitness quotes, noting both peaceful organizing and violent escalations. Headlines avoided emotionally charged language, and articles often described conflicting community reactions, highlighting the tension between fear of unrest and support for protest goals. Media coverage and Reddit discussion varied, with some outlets and users portraying the request for more police as a shift in activist priorities, while others explored broader community concerns about systemic violence. In one Reddit thread, users debated the implications of more policing, with some suggesting that assigning officers around parks could improve response times. Others, on the other hand, reminisced about traditional “patrolling” methods, including foot patrols. Another Reddit thread mentioned community efforts to reclaim Dawson Park, saying it was significant to address safety concerns through increased police presence and community programs. KGW News reported on Black community leaders calling for more safety near the park. The article mentions the leaders’ proactive stance in addressing the violence, and their commitment to safeguarding their neighborhood. The report remains largely neutral, but illustrates the complexity of opinions within the community regarding law enforcement’s role. 18 The Chapman Square protest escalated into a violent confrontation between protesters and law enforcement. Fires were set, objects were thrown, and police declared the event a riot. PPB’s report on Chapman Square focused almost exclusively on property destruction and attacks on officers. The release described: ●​ Protesters setting multiple fires near the Justice Center. ●​ Individuals throwing projectiles at officers. ●​ Law enforcement declaring a riot to restore order. The statement followed a consistent pattern in PPB’s protest reporting. It depicted protesters as violent aggressors and not political actors. It also worked to minimize or ommitted police use of force, and framed the riot declarations as necessary for public safety. On Reddit, some users challenged the police narrative, saying that the riot declaration was a pretext to justify force. Users questioned whether a fire that was set was a response to police escalation. Others debated the effectiveness of continued demonstrations. Media coverage of Chapman Square varied depending on the outlet: ●​ Conservative-leaning outlets focused on property damage and disorder. ●​ Left-leaning media covered activist motivations and police aggression. ●​ Local news attempted neutrality, describing the event in terms of “clashes” between police and demonstrators. PPB’s framing aligns with symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1969), where authority figures define reality through official discourse. The department established meaning through language, constructing a protest event as a security crisis rather than a political statement. Reddit discussions, in line with Papacharissi’s (2015) concept of affective publics, not only questioned official accounts but also helped reimagine Portland itself, not as a city in chaos, but as a space of civic resistance, grief, and community reckoning. Emotionally driven conversations offered a counter-image to the one constructed in police press releases and parts of the media. The symbolic identity of Portland became fractured: one version painted the city as a battleground of disorder, another as a collective space pushing toward justice. Media coverage reflected this tension. Drawing from Entman’s (1993) framing theory and McCombs and Shaw’s (1972) agenda-setting theory, it’s clear that different media ecosystems were competing to define what Portland meant. Conservative outlets leaned on imagery of destruction; progressive sources highlighted activist energy and state violence; local outlets, striving for neutrality, often defaulted to framing events as “clashes,” attempting to balance competing truths. Portland’s identity was constantly contested and rewritten in real time by overlapping, often conflicting, public discourses. 19 Lynch’s framework demonstrates how urban elements are not just physical locations but also symbolic sites continually redefined through competing narratives. We see that elements like paths, landmarks, and nodes have taken on dual meanings: one grounded in material reality, the other refracted through digital storytelling. Landmarks and Nodes: Locations like Chapman Square, Dawson Park, and the Justice Center became highly visible nodes and landmarks within Portland’s urban landscape, and were redefined by competing narratives. The PPB’s framing presented these sites as locations of violence and unrest. They communicated to enforce their authority, by describing them as dangerous areas in need of control. On the other hand, Reddit posts portrayed these sites as places of community, solidarity, and police aggression. Where Chapman Square was framed by PPB as a site of public disorder, Reddit described it as a place of mutual aid and solidarity (e.g., Riot Ribs). The Multnomah County Justice Center was a prominent and highly visible site where hundreds of protesters gathered. Police used physical force and less-lethal munitions to disperse crowds during protests. It became a symbol of state control, especially with the presence of federal forces enforcing authority through violence. In August of 2020 the building was approved to be repurposed to mixed-use commercial asset in a key part of Portland. Paths: Paths, including march routes and protest corridors, played an essential role in how urban space was contested. Streets leading to and from central locations like Chapman Square and the Justice Center were often mentioned in digital discussions. PPB press releases emphasized how marches “complicated” police responses or blocked vital routes which reinforced their narrative of protests as disruption. By calling the marches logistical complications, the PPB subtly admits that protesters are taking control of public space. They try to frame it as disruption. But that framing reveals something deeper. These streets are not merely routes, they’re also symbols. The chant “Whose streets? Our streets!” in these instances feels more than a slogan. It marks an ongoing fight over who belongs where, and who decides what public space is for. On Reddit, however, these paths were often described as empowering avenues for community mobilization. On the media side, KGW detailed how thousands of demonstrators took over Interstate 84 for about 30 minutes during a march protesting police brutality and racial injustice. The coverage highlighted significant impact on traffic and the boldness of the protesters’ actions. Edges: The concept of edges is relevant when looking at boundaries between protest zones and areas of safety or authority. The perimeters of parks, downtown business districts, and courthouse barricades acted as physical and symbolic edges, demarcating spaces of confrontation. PPB press releases often emphasized how protesters violated these edges. Reddit users framed them as barriers against free expression and state violence. Districts: The broader transformation of Portland’s urban environment involved how entire districts were framed through competing narratives. The downtown area was characterized by 20 PPB and conservative media as a district descending into chaos, while progressive media and Reddit discussions spoke of the district as a focal point for activism and democratic expression. Conclusion The ongoing urban transformations, from BLM murals and statue removals to city governance reforms, reveal how digital discourse and physical activism reshaped entire districts’ identities. Ultimately, public policies, such as police budget cuts and the establishment of the Community Police Oversight Board, were direct responses to political pressure generated by protest discourse. Reddit’s affective public played a significant role in these demands, while the police’s language looked to assert institutional control over the interpretation of these events. During the protests, Reddit threads, viral hashtags, and media coverage didn’t just report on urban spaces—they redefined them. Paths like protest routes became symbolic journeys of resistance. Landmarks like Chapman Square and the Justice Center were transformed into either sites of unrest or solidarity depending on the narrative source. These places were not merely where events happened—they became what the events meant, going beyond their physical aspects to their symbolic meaning. These physical spaces became a priority for protestors to “occupy” or “own.” Digital conversations directly affected how people navigated, interacted with, and even reconfigured those physical spaces. Emotional storytelling online led to physical acts: murals, barricades, preserved graffiti, and the establishment of mutual aid hubs like Riot Ribs. In turn, those spaces reinforced the online narratives, creating a feedback loop between virtual discourse and material transformation. As digital platforms continue to democratize storytelling, these contested narratives increasingly shape public perception and influence policy decisions. 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