Curriculum Design for Heritage Language Learners in Utah AP Spanish Classes by Javier Alvaro Berzal Rojo A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION with an emphasis in CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION WEBER STATE UNIVERSITY Ogden, Utah August 2025 Approved by: Vincent C. Bates, Ph.D. Katarina Anderson, Ph.D. Juan Carlos Fernández, Ph.D. Student AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 2 Table of contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4 Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 5 Equity and inclusion as goals for a quality education......................................................... 5 Benefits of advanced courses: Advanced Placement .......................................................... 7 The Utah Bridge Program for the Advanced Language Learning ...................................... 8 Shortcomings of the American and Utah Education System .............................................. 8 Curriculum and pedagogy for Heritage Language Learners............................................. 15 Purpose.......................................................................................................................................... 28 Methods......................................................................................................................................... 29 Procedures ......................................................................................................................... 30 Design of the unit .......................................................................................................................... 41 Experiencing the known ................................................................................................... 41 Experiencing the new ........................................................................................................ 42 Conceptualizing by naming .............................................................................................. 43 Analyzing critically ........................................................................................................... 44 Applying appropriately ..................................................................................................... 46 Feedback results and revisions...................................................................................................... 46 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 50 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 3 Future practice and research ............................................................................................. 50 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 50 References ..................................................................................................................................... 52 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 64 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 77 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 4 Introduction To meet the challenges of demographic changes in recent years, education reports have called upon school systems to become more inclusive and equitable (Foxen, 2019). Based on educational and socioeconomic indicators (Teigen, 2021; Prior, 2024), the Utah education system has not effectively responded to the needs of a Spanish-speaking migrant influx, resulting in a diverse student population. This problem continues to negatively affect Hispanic students, who have seen a wide achievement gap between themselves and native students (USBE, 2024a). The research literature gives evidence for the complexity of this problem in the United States. Among the many contributing factors, scholars point to schools’ and teachers’ low academic expectations for minority groups (Reardon and Galindo, 2003, as cited in Schneider et al., 2006; Shepherd, 2011; Wang et al., 2018), low participation of Latino students in advanced courses (Patrick et al., 2020; TNTP, 2018), and the relative lack of implementation of instructional practices and materials specially designed to serve these students in Spanish language courses better (Johnson et al., 2024). Despite these challenges, the Utah education system requires effective approaches that address the challenge of providing Hispanic students the quality education to which they are entitled. In this regard, the existence of the Utah Bridge Program for Advanced Language Learning is intended to set a clear pathway to college for a significant number of Latino students. Dougherty et al. (2006) have highlighted the need to improve AP passing rates by preparing students in previous courses, and Potowski et al. (2008) argue that AP Spanish Language and Culture preparation should be included in elementary and lower secondary levels. Responding to the needs of Hispanic students implies the introduction of frameworks at the curricular and pedagogical levels that have been proven beneficial for Spanish-speaking students, providing one AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 5 of the multiple lines of action in fostering more equitable approaches to schooling for this population. However, such changes should not be limited to the Bridge courses but should be primarily introduced into the Spanish Advanced Placement course, which allows students to later enroll in the Bridge program. Literature Review A demographic challenge for the Utah education system Demographic and cultural shifts over the last three decades have led to an increasingly diverse student population in the United States. Notably, Utah has become an increasingly popular destination for a growing Hispanic population. According the Kem C. Gardner Policy Institute from the University of Utah (Prior, 2024), the Latino population more than doubled (138.3%) in the 1990s, grew to a rate higher than 70% in the first decade of the 21st century, and decreased to almost 38% from 2010 to 2020, a figure that still makes Utah the Western state with the third most rapidly growing Hispanic population. Furthermore, 2020 Census Data show that Latinos now represent more than 15% of the state’s population, with a median age of about 6 years younger (25.4) than the Utah average (31.3). Consequently, schools have seen an increase in Latino students over the last decades. Today, the Utah State Board of Education (USBE) reports that 20% of the student population is Hispanic. This scenario calls for policies that guarantee quality education as an essential right for all. Equity and inclusion as goals for a quality education Cerna (2022) defines equity in education as the capability to provide “equality of opportunities so each individual reaches his/her education potential” (p.10). Inclusion is usually understood as an approach that demands education systems adapt to meet all students, responding to the needs of a diverse student population, and thereby laying the groundwork for AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 6 an equitable system. Although both concepts could be defined in many ways, equity and inclusion have been widely accepted as essential goals of the education system. Foxen (2019) describes fairness and equity in education as “core American values” (p.1), ideals that were also internationally adopted by the UNESCO in 2016, whose quality education Sustainable Development Goal for 2030 states that education systems must “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities” (UNESCO, 2025). In 2022, Varsik noted that all countries responding to the Strength through Diversity Policy Survey, including the United States, identified equity and inclusion as priorities in their education systems. More recently, the OECD Directorate for Education dedicated its 2024 Education at a Glance report to equity in education, highlighting the correlation between quality and fair access for all, regardless of their social or economic background. In this regard, not only is equity/inclusion an ethical approach to education and a “social-justice imperative,” but also an effective and efficient way to allocate resources (Schleicher, 2018). Amidst the debate and passage of the HB-261 bill in January 2024, also known as the "Equal Opportunity Initiatives,” the terms “equity,” “diversity,” and “inclusion” have become highly controversial in Utah. Moreover, their use has been banned from official programs and policies in higher education, which cannot be designed according to an individual’s personal identity characteristics. Despite this political climate, the Utah State Board of Education—the institution that governs K12 education in Utah—Strategic Plan 2024 clearly states a vision of quality education and a mission commitment to “open doors of opportunity for all Utah children” (p.5). More specifically, its fourth goal affirms that each student should have access to personalized learning experiences, which poses questions about the real impact of the ban of equity, diversity, and inclusion programs on underrepresented groups. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 7 Benefits of advanced courses: Advanced Placement Advanced Placement (AP), sponsored by the College Board, is a highly popular multidisciplinary program in the United States that offers rigorous high school courses, allowing students to earn college credit. Furthermore, AP courses are recognized as an excellent resource for providing college-ready skills to upper secondary learners—skills that are highly valued in a competitive environment where higher education credentials are increasingly required (Kolluri, 2018). Research indicates that enrollment in advanced courses provides long-term academic and professional benefits for high school students. For instance, Speroni (2011) argues that AP students are more likely to attend 4-year higher education institutions than concurrent enrollment students. Additionally, findings suggest that AP course enrollment is an effective predictor of postsecondary academic success (Flowers, 2008; Mattern et al., 2009; Morgan and Klaric, 2007; Morgan and Ramist, 1998; Reeder, as cited in Marrero-Rivera, 2021). Delving into the academic benefits of the program, Beard et al. (2019) found that taking up to two AP exams has the most significant impact on first-year college grades and on-time bachelor's degree completion. Further, academic benefits are not exclusive to one ethnic group. Flowers’ (2008) work on racial differences and the impact of AP participation shows that Hispanic students who took AP classes were more likely to achieve higher scores on college entrance examinations, and earn a bachelor’s degree and an advanced degree than non-AP students. AP courses provide additional advantages; research demonstrates that AP classes are described as satisfying educational experiences (Hertberg-Davis & Callangham, 2008) that positively impact students’ perception of high school (Bleske-Rechek et al., 2004). AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 8 The Utah Bridge Program for the Advanced Language Learning The Utah Dual Language Immersion program culminates in 9th grade by preparing the students to take the AP Spanish Language and Culture exam. As a result, those students who pass with a score of three or higher have the option to take upper-division concurrent enrollment courses in modern languages, also known as the Bridge program, starting in their sophomore year during high school. However, this pathway is not the only possible way to enroll in the program since it is open for any student who passes the AP exam during their freshmen, sophomore and junior year regardless of previous education, which provides options for students other than the ones who traditionally are part of the Dual Language Immersion program, for instance, those who recently moved to Utah. It is with students in this pathway in mind that this curriculum proposal is designed. In summary, the Bridge Program offers a clear route to higher education for high school students who, after three years of successful completion of the Bridge courses, are two or three classes away from a minor in the target language, apart from the possibility to work towards additional degree options, from certificates to bachelor’s degrees. Shortcomings of the American and Utah Education System Teacher expectations and ethnicity Nonetheless, reality differs from the quality education for all envisioned by international, national, and regional organizations and institutions. First, teacher-student interactions influence students’ engagement in their education (Burges and Greaves, 2013); research has demonstrated the importance of teacher expectations on students’ educational outcomes (TNPT, 2024; Burges and Greaves, 2013). The nature of teacher expectations is complex, but the literature suggests the existence of stereotypes that negatively impact specific groups (Burger and Greaves, 2013; Lavy and Sand, 2018). After reviewing 30 years of literature on this matter, for example, Wang et al. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 9 (2018) concluded that most of the studies examining the relationship between teacher’s expectations and student’s ethnicity demonstrated the existence of “negative achievement stereotypes” (p.131) about Latino and African American students in the United States. Lower expectations have also been found with relation to students with a low socioeconomic status (Wang et al., 2018). Conversely, a school and teachers’ culture of high expectations and positive relationships with disadvantaged students can work as a protection against risks derived from their socioeconomic and familial context (Van den Broeck et al., 2020). Educator-student ethnic match Although the Latino population is growing across the United States and accounts for almost 30% of the national student population, Hispanic educators remain a minority (NCES, 2024). In fact, only 9.4% of the teacher workforce is Hispanic, and only six states surpass 10%. In Utah, just 5.6% of K-12 teachers are Latino versus 20% of students. As one might expect, the situation is not better when examining the 9.3% national principal’s ratio. While there is no specific data for Utah, 93.6% of the state’s principals are white non-Hispanic. Furthermore, nationwide, Hispanics also do not represent most of the educators, even when the school population is more than 50% Latino—specifically, less than 40% of the principals and 30% of the teaching workforce. This scenario becomes relevant in terms of equity since teacher ethnic match significantly impacts Latino students in the United States. Rasheed et al. (2019) argue that teacher-child race/ethnicity matching enhances student engagement, attendance, and social abilities. Further, Redding (2019) emphasizes its positive impact on behavior perception and teacher rating of students’ academic skills, especially in higher grades. These benefits, according to some studies, can also include a higher degree of parental involvement (Markowitz et al., 2020). Conversely, research also underscores the negative effect AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 10 that student-teacher race/ethnic mismatch has on teacher expectations (Gershenson et al., 2015; Rasheed et al., 2019). For instance, Grissom and Redding (2016) found that Black students with non-Black teachers are less likely to be classified as high achievers. Hispanics in advanced programs An important role of schools as public institutions is to provide opportunities and foster a sense of belonging for all students. Promoting advanced courses among minorities student populations could be considered an important indicator of school expectations for these learners. Although Latino families greatly believe in the importance of education (Stepler, 2016), Hispanics hold lower expectations about postsecondary education compared to their peers (Turcios-Cotto and Milan, 2012). As a result, Latino students are disproportionally represented in AP classes (Solorzano and Ornelas, 2004). This situation, replicated in most districts across the United States, is not exclusive to AP but also to other advanced courses such as Dual Enrollment, although disparities are wider in the former (Xu et al., 2020). For instance, in the state of Utah, Hispanics comprise 11.9% of the Concurrent Enrollment students in degreegranting institutions (USHE, 2025), even though they make up 20% of the Utah student population. Also in Utah, Freire et al. (2017) suggest that Spanish heritage students’ priorities have not been considered when implementing the prestigious Utah Dual Language Immersion Program, despite the fact that Dual Language programs are an effective strategy to fight inequity among Latino students (Freire et al., 2017; Lindholm-Leary, 2012). Finally, another barrier exists that is connected to access to postsecondary education: Latino students do not tend to see school counselors as an influential person in their educational plans (Cholewa et al., 2020). The role of counselors is an aspect that should not be overlooked since they largely impact students AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 11 with directions and recommendations that research suggests might be biased (Francis et al., 2019). Unequitable curriculum and instruction: Spanish courses and Heritage Language Learners. It should not be a surprise, therefore, if other elements of the system do not properly address the needs of an increasingly diverse population in which Hispanics comprise 30% of the student body. This is also the case with curriculum design and instructional practices, even in Spanish courses. As the Latino population grows, so does the Hispanic population that enrolls in Spanish courses, which were initially designed for learners whose first language was English (L2) (Marrero-Rivera, 2021). However, before delving into this reality, it is important to define a term that is inextricably connected to Latino students in Spanish courses: Heritage Language Learner (HLL). Although considering Spanish as a heritage language in the United States might raise objections given that there are more than 43 million who use it at home (US Census Bureau, 2024), different HLL definitions exist that vary widely about the basis for what a student could be classified as such. This work will follow the considerations of Johnson et al. (2024), which, following Valdés’ approach (2001), include a previous degree of linguistic competence in the heritage language. Therefore, a HLL is defined as: “(1) The student is currently enrolled in an English‐dominant educational context; (2) there is a familial connection to the language; and (3) the student utilizes knowledge of Spanish to varying degrees” (Johnson et al., 2024, p.947). In this regard, Johnson and colleagues (2024) warn that the specific needs of HLLs are not covered in regular Spanish courses. The reasons for that claim are diverse and include lack of specific policies and programs, teacher professional development, or the existence of deficit ideologies, among others. Burgo (2018) suggests that Latino students who are considered heritage learners are usually enrolled in courses designed for second language students (L2) AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 12 where the teachers are rarely trained in heritage language teaching or prepared to teach mixed classes. This scenario, however, is not limited to traditional Spanish courses. AP Spanish Language and Culture courses have also been an object of study. In just one decade, the number of HLL who take the AP Spanish Language and Culture exam grew exponentially from 47.6% in 2004 to 61.9% in 2014 (Brown and Thompson, 2020). The same study found that HLLs outperformed L2 students, and that there is a clear trend of greater levels of bilingualism in world languages exams. The reasons behind these results are unknown, but it could be potentially explained by the larger role that oral tasks and colloquial language have in the exam, areas in which HLL are more proficient due to the connection between language and their family/community settings where informal register is predominant (Brown and Thompson, 2020; Marrero-Rivera, 2021). Consistent with this idea, the study found that HLLs’ scores on exams involving the formal use of the Spanish language and complex analysis tasks, such as the AP Spanish Literature and Culture exam, are lower compared to those of non-heritage students in 10 out of the 11 years studied. It could be inferred, then, that the scores in the Language and Culture exam, in contrast with the Literature and Culture one, rely more on the student’s experiences with the heritage language, its linguistic background and context, than on the implementation of tailored learning strategies for HLLs. Further, Brown and Thompson (2020) also emphasize the importance of enhancing awareness among the many heritage students who are not taking full advantage of the benefits that AP courses offer them. Consequently, the same authors call for a revision of current practices, including pedagogical approaches, curriculum design, scoring, and the representation of Spanish linguistic variation. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 13 In summary, the lack of appropriate approaches for Hispanic students translates into the existence of education practices that systematically ignore them in the classroom and perpetuate inequalities. Achievement and economic gap among Hispanic/Latino students A critical question arises from the situation described above: How do these system inefficacies affect Latino students? According to multiple research studies (e.g., Foxen, 2019; Reardon et al., 2017), Latino students perform systematically lower than white students. Reardon et al. (2017) argue that, although there are differences across the United States, there is practically no school district serving a considerable number of Latino students, where the Hispanic-white achievement gap is close to zero. The same authors claim that there are three main causes that might explain such differences between minority and white students. First, those causes connected with family socioeconomic resources; second, students’ schooling factors not linked to family socioeconomic situation, such as educational policies or instructional practices; and third, causes originating from the intersection of the other two categories, like segregation patterns. Given the complex and inextricable nature of these three variables, the same authors point out that it is not possible to identify the contribution each of them plays in the achievement disparities found. However, Reardon and colleagues (2017) were able to detect correlations that provide effective predictors of racial achievement gaps, the strongest being family resource differences and segregation patterns. In this regard, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (2017), 60% of Hispanic students attended schools with at least 75% minority enrollment in 2014, a scenario that is indicative of a wider Latino-white achievement gap (Reardon et al., 2017). Since schools and districts with mostly minority students represent lower SES populations (Foxen, 2019), these figures align with the finding that AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 14 racial differences in the exposure to poverty at school correlate with larger racial achievement gaps (Reardon et al., 2017). It is, in summary, the vicious cycle in which socioeconomic family background and segregation impact the resources that communities can allocate to education, triggering the existence of under-funded schools that find difficulties to find and retain qualified teachers, provide effective curricula, offer advanced courses, or share information about scholarships (Foxen, 2019). In the last decades, many academic gap indicators between Latino students and their white peers have narrowed (Foxen, 2019). However, the most recent data illustrate the ongoing need to continue working on eliminating inequities. Nationwide, standardized 2024 National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) tests in Math and Reading still show significant achievement gaps. In grade 4, Hispanic students achieved an average score (0-500) of 227 in Math and 199 in Reading, compared to 247 (-20) and 228 (-29) for their white peers. In grade 8, results are not more positive, 258 against 287 (-29) in Math, and 245 versus 269 (-24) in Reading. At the state level, the mathematics gap in Utah is 25 points in 4th grade and 29 points in 8th grade, ranking it the 12th and 18th highest in the Nation. Further, the reading gap is even wider. At the 4th grade level, Utah holds the 4th highest difference (-30), but is slightly below the national average in grade 8 (-21). Achievement gaps are also present among other indicators. For instance, the graduation rate is about 10% lower among Hispanic student compared to their white schoolmates, a difference that has been quite steady since 2015. Moreover, Hispanics double the dropout rate of the white school population, 16.2% versus 7.1% (USBE, 2024a). At the post-secondary education level, the achievement gap persists. In their "Rising to the Challenge" report, Kelly et al. (2010) found that Latino college students were less likely to be enrolled in the most competitive colleges and had a lower graduation rate compared to white AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 15 students, regardless of the institution's level of competitiveness. In fact, the same document points out that the average Bachelor’s graduation rate within 6 years is 51% for Latino students and 60% for white students. In Utah, the graduation gap seems to be even larger. While 52% of high school graduates who enroll in higher education graduate with a certificate or program within 8 years, among Hispanics, this rate is only 33.6% in comparison to the 54.5% for white students (Henrie et al., 2019). It is widely accepted that upper secondary studies, such as a high school diploma, are the minimum starting point required for successful labor and social integration in Western societies (Carrasco et al., 2018; OECD, 2024). Consequently, the academic gap translates into socioeconomic gaps and vice versa. In this regard, it is important to examine some figures that depict the racial educational attainment and the economic gap in Utah. In February 2021, the Utah Foundation published a report that analyzed the situation of Latinos in the state (Teigen, 2021). Among all Utahns of 25 years and older, only 6% have less than a high school diploma, whereas if only the Hispanic population is considered, the percentage reaches 33%. As for higher education, 30% of all Utahns graduated with a bachelor’s degree or higher, compared to only 11% of Latinos. Regarding the economic indicators, Hispanic populations have lower income, being 53% below 200% poverty level compared to 37% of the Utah population overall, and thus they are less likely to be homeowners, tending to allocate more than the 30% of their income to pay for housing, or are more likely to receive food assistance (Teigen, 2021). Curriculum and pedagogy for Heritage Language Learners In summary, this situation of injustice for the Hispanic population should prompt policymakers, higher education institutions, district administrators, schools, and educators in general to reassess their approaches to addressing existing inequities. A need, therefore, arises to investigate some AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 16 frameworks and approaches that possess the potential to transform the traditional second language-oriented curricular and pedagogical models of the AP Spanish Language and Culture classes to offer solutions that guarantee the quality education to which Hispanic students, and more specifically HLLs, are entitled. Equity Lens Paul Gorski (2017) offers a framework to examine our practice as educators from an Equity literacy approach. Only by reflecting on the forces that shape schools, including individual beliefs and biases, it is possible to face the different forms of inequity that are rooted in education. The Equity literacy approach is, in fact, a new way of looking first to recognize disparities and then to respond effectively. One of the key concepts that Gorski (2017) presents is the distinction between equality and equity. Through the equity lens, equality in education can be seen as a tool that contributes to perpetuating inequity. Since marginalized and underrepresented groups have been treated inequitably, applying the same norms, expectations, pedagogies, or, in this case, the same pedagogical approaches, perpetuates inequity. Far from being the perfect balance, it widens the gaps. If Gorski sees equality as “sameness” (p.19), equity consequently becomes the means to combat the unfair “distribution of access and opportunity” (p.19) that underrepresented and lowincome students face every day. Under this perspective, inequality in the distribution of resources and opportunities can be perfectly equitable, because it allows to erode the gap with their wealthier peers. Gorski (2017) presents four abilities that define an equity literate educator that will be rooted in this project. First, by being able to notice and recognize inequities around educators. Second, by responding immediately when those inequities arise, especially in the closest sphere AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 17 of influence: the classroom. Third, by advocating for equity in the long term, even when that implies facing structural forms of inequity. And fourth, by committing to create equitable learning environments. Social justice in the language classroom: Culturally responsive and sustaining pedagogies Culturally Responsive Teaching can be defined as the set of instructional practices that put into play “the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students” (Gay, 2002, p.1), which ignite a more effective and meaningful learning experience. According to this approach, and based on various research studies, Gay (2000) argued that the academic achievement of ethnically diverse students improves when learning occurs through their cultural lens. Rooted in the framework of culturally relevant pedagogies introduced by Ladson-Billings in the 1990s, the goal cannot only be to increase academic achievement, but also to help students “accept and affirm their cultural identity while developing critical perspectives that challenge inequities that schools (and other institutions) perpetuate” (Ladson-Billings, 1995, p.469). From the perspective of culturally relevant and responsive pedagogies, along with academic growth and cultural competence, the development of critical consciousness becomes an essential component of the teaching-learning experience. In her article “Preparing for Culturally Responsive Teaching,” Gay (2002) identified five key elements: the development of solid foundations about diversity, the importance of the communication with a diverse student population, the inclusion of culturally relevant content in curricula, the creation of communities of learning, and the introduction of teaching practices that respond to ethnic diverse students. Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy (CSP) is a related term coined by Django Paris (2012) in his influential work, “Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy: A Needed Change in Stance, AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 18 Terminology, and Practice”, which evolves from culturally relevant and responsive approaches. CSP distinguishes itself from its predecessors by its explicit commitment to sustaining not just cultural awareness but actively promoting cultural pluralism as an integral part of teaching and learning. In his own words, CSP “seeks to perpetuate and foster—to sustain—linguistic, literate, and cultural pluralism as part of the democratic project of schooling” (p.95). Furthermore, Paris (2012) argues that a multicultural and multilingual society demands that the education system not only respect, tolerate, and be responsive to students’ ways of knowing, but also value and maintain them in the process of acquiring predominant sets of cultural practices, such as languages or literacies. However, Paris and Alim (2014) have more recently delved into this concept and emphasized the rational reasons underlying CSP: the globalized world demands the knowledge and skills of truly multicultural and multilingual societies. It is, therefore, not only a matter of ethnic/racial equality, but of “access and opportunity” (p.89). Finally, Paris and Alim (2016) introduce an idea that sets CSP apart from their predecessors: sustaining cultural practices of marginalized communities is compatible with creating spaces where those same ways of knowing and being are examined through a critical lens. In other words, CSP must not fall into the idealization of the practices that are brought into the class, but instead provide opportunities for students to critique those that reproduce marginalization, defamation, or other forms of inequality. Asset-based pedagogies, such as those described above, relate to approaches that connect with valuable attempts to create a more equitable education and society through their specific subjects. In the field of world language education, a book by Glynn and colleagues, Words and Actions: Teaching Languages through the Lens of Social Justice (2018), includes a proposed model that seeks to promote social justice in the world language classroom through the AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 19 enhancement of four different domains —Identity, Diversity, Justice, and Action— and standards adopted from Teaching Tolerance’s Social Justice Standards (2016). Their work also incorporates the components that are essential to design any activity, lesson, or curriculum rooted in social justice principles: Content Mastery and Factual Information, Tools for Critical Analysis, Tools for Social Action and Change, Tools for Personal Reflection, Tools for Personal Reflection, and Multicultural Group Dynamics (Hackman, 2005, as cited in Glynn et al., 2018). Furthermore, the same scholars emphasize the need to carefully plan the introduction of critical analysis and social action tools to create teaching scenarios where learning is grounded in social justice. Teaching of Heritage Language Learners The first thing to mention about the concept of Heritage Language Learners (HLLs) is not only the difficulty in establishing who fits into this concept, but also the definition of Heritage Language (HL) itself. Carreira et al. (2017a) define a HL as a language other than the one that is dominant within a society. In the context of the United States, such a dominant language is English, which makes any other language connected to the American society a HL. In this group, a variety of languages can be found, including both native and immigrant languages. There are, however, two other factors that help to shape the concept. First, the notion that HL is rooted in family, home, and small communities. Second, the fact that the HL is not dominant—consigned to informal settings—and therefore is not the language of the education system (Carreira et al., 2017). The second question that needs to be answered is how to define HLLs. The concept of HLLs is complex, and scholars have extensively discussed the specific characteristics of these learners. Polinsky and Kagan (2007) propose a framework that categorizes students into two AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 20 distinct definitional categories. On the one hand, the wide or broad definition emphasizes the existence of a cultural connection to the language, which usually comes from their families or ancestors. Under this definition, the HLL can either possess or not possess a certain level of language proficiency. However, that is not the focus, but their cultural tie to the language. On the other hand, the narrow definition focuses on the proficiency level of the HL. In this regard, Valdés’ (2001) classical definition fits into this group, so that HLL is defined as “a language student who is raised in a home where a non-English target language is spoken and who speaks or at least understands the language and is to some degree bilingual in that language and in English” (p.38). Although some scholars, such as Potowski (2014), have argued in favor of a broad approach, the nature of this curricular project aligns better with a narrow definition of HLL. Since the AP Spanish Language and Culture test assesses students’ linguistic proficiency level, this aspect becomes key to designing an effective curriculum that addresses the needs of HLLs in the AP Spanish Language class and, consequently, in their pathway to higher education through future enrollment in the Utah Bridge Program. However, Potowski (2014) warns that the narrow definition excludes native students, defined as those arriving from Spanish-speaking countries after the age of 12. While this warning must be taken seriously, this type of student— increasingly common in classrooms across the State in the last few years—has needs that are more connected to HLL’s, as defined by a narrow approach, than the needs of HLLs defined from a broad perspective whose language priorities are often not very different from L2Ls’. In conclusion, this project will use a narrow definition articulated by Johnson and colleagues (2024). This definition, as mentioned earlier, is based on three main features: 1. The student attends an English education setting; 2. There is a family connection to the HL; 3. The HLL has AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 21 knowledge of the HL. It is essential to notice here that, conversely to Valdés (2001), Johnson et al. (2024) do not mention the need for proficiency in the English language. In conclusion, the reality of the HLLs is as diverse as their backgrounds, which, among other things, include their family connections, motivations to learn the HL, language varieties to which they are exposed, level of language proficiency, etc. Once HL and HLL have been defined, it is essential to delve into successful teaching methods and considerations for HLLs. The diversity of HLLs’ experiences translates into different abilities and knowledge from L2 students, which, therefore, requires specific approaches to respond to their specific demands. In the following lines, some research-based ideas to effectively address HL learning will be outlined. Linguistic considerations. What are the linguistic strengths of HLLs? What are the areas that need remedial instruction? In terms of oral proficiency, HLLs are usually at the intermediate level (Martin et al., 2013). Due to the typical contexts where HLLs use and are exposed to the HL, it is easy for them to discuss routines, personal experiences, and family-related topics. In other words, they have good control of the language with excellent or native-like pronunciation in informal situations. Conversely, HLLs struggle with topics that demand abstract forms of expression, such as those related to academic disciplines (Carreira et al., 2017). It should not sound strange, then, that they control basic sentence structures and find difficulties with the construction of a cohesive and more complex discourse. Given these characteristics, vocabulary is among the areas that require more attention to help HL students’ progress from intermediate to advanced level. Because HLLs possess a smaller vocabulary than native/first generation immigrants, Carreira et al. (2017) argue that HLLs need to acquire more abstract and academic vocabulary and, specifically, emphasize verbs AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 22 and adjectives since research shows that they retain nouns better. These authors argue that vocabulary should always be presented in context, providing repeated opportunities for exposure and in ways that lead the student from reception and awareness to production. As for the syntax and morphology, Carreira (2017a; 2017b) establishes hierarchies of topics that need special attention. Regarding the latter, the author emphasizes the noun morphology, particularly the inconsistent use of gender agreement. Within verb morphology, research shows that imperfective verb tenses —those with no clear time boundaries— along with the subjunctive mood present more difficulties. This limitation affects their syntax directly since the construction of complex structures with coordinate and subordinate clauses often requires the use of imperfective tenses and the subjunctive mood. Consequently, HLLs abuse basic syntax structures formed by subject, verb, and object. (Carreira, 2017a). In summary, HLLs’ language areas of improvement might be different from those of L2 students. Moreover, it requires specific approaches that allow the targeting of particular needs. While L2 instruction is usually designed as a continuum of additive content, skills, and knowledge, HL teaching demands tailor-made solutions that help the students grow in their language proficiency from the unique background that they bring to the classroom. In this regard, grammar instruction should also be contextualized, drawing from what happens in the class (Carreira et al., 2017). Macro-based approaches. Kagan and Dillon (2001) argue that HLLs require a macrobased approach that exposes students to formal instruction—such as grammar or syntax—that is derived from authentic tasks and materials. Conversely to L2 methods, which build up from the bottom, macro-based approaches work from top to bottom: from resource and task to formally focused instruction. Students are then exposed to resources and tasks that focus on the ideas AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 23 presented in the text, and therefore can use their prior knowledge and skills to make sense of the new information. Language activities and instruction are designed with this objective in mind, making them a tool to understand the text and complete meaningful tasks that delve into the content (Carreira et al., 2017). However, Kagan (2017, as cited in Carreira et al., 2017) suggests that bottom-up instruction could be used in combination with the macro approach. Under this perspective, micro approaches would serve to correct areas of their language that needs to be addressed. Five from-to principles. In 2015, Carreira and Kagan (as cited in Carreira et al., 2017) presented a set of five principles to design and guide HL curriculum and instruction (see Table 1). The proposal sought to incorporate HLLs’ experiences as well as their cultural and linguistic knowledge and skills in their HL language. Table 1 From-to principles for Heritage Language Teaching Principles 1. Listening → reading 2. Speaking → writing 3. Home-based register → general/academic registers 4. Every-day activities → in-class activities 5. Motivation & identity → content Note. Adapted from Carreira et al., (2017) The first and second principles take HLLs’ language oral abilities as the groundwork to build up their reading and writing skills. The third one aims to move the student from the register of the AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 24 language in which they are proficient —informal contexts— to the general, academic context where a formal register is required. It is important to note here that instruction must not undervalue students’ assets—such as informal registers or dialectal varieties—but rather recognize their role in communication, culture, and identity and use them as a starting point to expand their language proficiency. The same applies to their experiences and activities, which are foundational to other class activities, as described in the fourth principle. Finally, the selection of materials and, in general, the curriculum design, can benefit from its connection to the students’ motivation and emotional needs. Carreira et al. (2017) point out that the most critical reasons among HLLs for enrolling in their classes were connected to identity—a desire to learn more about their cultural background—and community belonging—an interest in increasing their ability to communicate with members of their communities. Differentiated instruction and mixed classes. It has been said that the diversity present among HLLs requires approaches other than the ones traditionally used in L2 settings. Because HLL classes are inherently heterogeneous, students do not follow the same pace, and learning is not linear. Carreira et al. (2017) suggest that Differentiated Instruction (DI) offers a philosophical and instructional framework for responding to the individual needs of the learners. Tomlinson and Imbeau (2023) define DI as “a classroom practice with a balanced emphasis on individual students and the class as a whole” (p.30). To accomplish such a mission, Tomlison and Imbeau argue that it is necessary to act according to multiple curriculum elements: content, process, product, and affect, the last one being understood as the student’s emotional response to learning. However, these modifications and adaptations are not arbitrary, as they should emerge from the observation and assessment of the student’s readiness, interest, and learning style. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 25 While DI is argued to be incorporated into HL instruction, its principles also align readily with mixed classes of HLLs and L2 students. Research in the field of HL teaching has suggested that specific courses for HLLs are more beneficial for the HL students, especially at the lower levels (Carreira et al., 2017; Valdés et al., 2006). However, reality differs widely from the ideal, and mixed classes of HLLs and L2Ls are very common. This is the case of the AP Spanish Language and Culture classes in the State of Utah. If as it has been discussed, diversity is a critical feature of the HL classroom, mixed classes present a more challenging scenario for educators. Mixed settings have not been an area of interest in the field of language teaching. However, Carreira (2014, as cited in Carreira et al., 2017) has shown that, in fact, many mixed classes are effectively taught as L2 classes, ignoring the demands of HLLs, even with higher enrollments of the latter. In fact, research suggests that lack of materials and instructional practices specifically designed for mixed classes results in greater language learning for L2 Learners (Carreira et al., 2017; Henshaw, 2013). Nonetheless, Carreira et al. (2017) argue that successful mixed classes are possible. They propose three key ideas rooted in the principle of attention to both populations. First, both groups benefit from the instruction. Second, both types of learners contribute to the learning process. Third, it is needed to create a positive interdependence between HLLs and L2 students. Bowles (2011) shed some light on how to approach this challenge, suggesting that pairing two different types of learners may be beneficial for both. In particular, when paired for writing tasks, HLL can help L2 with the acquisition of new vocabulary while L2 can guide HLL with orthography. Carreira et al. (2017) delve into this idea by recommending that the design of activities should balance between tasks that challenge and tasks that support the other type of students. On the other hand, targeted instruction through flexible-grouping and mini-lessons, also encouraged by AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 26 Carreira (2016), aligns with the philosophy of DI. Carreira (2016) also proposes two strategies that stand out from a DI lens: the use of agendas—sets of activities due in a specific period of time—and centers—physical or virtual spaces that contain materials and activities, specific instructions, and a student-record system—facilitate independent learning in areas where targeted instruction is more needed. Learning by design. Multiliteracies is a pedagogical approach that has gained attention recently in the field of language teaching, including HL instruction methods, although the concept was first coined by the New London Group in the 1990s in response to the change in sociolinguistic paradigms brought about by globalization and digitalization. More specifically, Kalantzis and Cope (2015) have shaped the idea about how to teach to understand the complex meaning-making contexts of the contemporary world into a systematic pedagogy model, known as Learning by Design. This approach, in line with the ones mentioned, includes informal learning intended as meaningful to students, not only as a starting point, but also by incorporating the processes that are present in both informal and formal learning (Zapata, 2017). In this regard, Kalantzis and Cope (2015) place the curriculum as the backbone of the learning process. Further, the curriculum is articulated in a way that allows students to move from their experiences to deeper forms of knowledge through a series of knowledge processes (see Table 2). These processes are understood as “thought in action” (p.23), or in other words, as the conscious process of building new knowledge by actions that shape thought. Actions that articulate learning by a careful selection of instructional materials that enhance the analysis from different perspectives and the exploration of diverse modes of representation (printed text, video, audio, pictures, interactive media, etc.). AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 27 Table 2 Knowledge processes 1. Experiencing Experiencing the known Experiencing the new 2. Conceptualizing Conceptualizing by naming. Conceptualizing with theory 3. Analyzing Analyzing functionally Analyzing critically 4. Applying Applying appropriately Applying creatively Note. Adapted from Kalantzis and Cope (2025) Parra et al. (2017) have contributed to the introduction of Learning by Design pedagogy into the area of HL teaching methods. In particular, they emphasize the contribution of students’ experiences and interests to the learning process, to the extent that the class becomes a “community of practice” (Wenger, 1991, as cited in Parra et al., 2017), where affect plays a significant role in the learning process. These ideas—that place the emotional dynamics of the student at the center—situate or conceptualize the class as a “community of learners,” a term that Carreira derived from DI philosophy (Tomlinson, 2011, as cited in Carreira et al., 2017). In this regard, Parra and colleagues suggest that the multiliteracies framework can be integrated with the contributions from the HL teaching field of study. Further, Learning by Design (Parra et al., 2017) offers a curriculum design model that can effectively be used to promote HLLs’ “overall development, sense of well-being, and ethnolinguistic identity” through the action of critical and AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 28 creative thinking, problem solving, flexibility, and collaboration (p.30). Moreover, Learning by Design—rooted in the idea that language is a tool for making meaning—fits under the umbrella of one of the pillars of HL pedagogy, the macro-approaches proposed by Kagan and Dillon (2001). Project Language-Based Learning. If some scholars (Parra et al., 2017; Zapata, 2017) have viewed the multiliteracies approach as a framework for structuring their curricula and instruction in HL courses, Carreira et al. (2017) have adopted Project-Based Learning (PBL) to structure teaching in line with a top-down methodology. There are three main reasons for this decision. First, PBL is meant to work well with the priorities of DI, and in this regard, it fits with both HL and mixed settings that present diverse levels of language proficiency. Second, but connected with the prior reason, PBL aims for interdependence and independence in the learning process, and students find the opportunity to explore their interests while connecting them to their experiences, skills, and knowledge. Finally, PBL processes and products place students in a position where they need to use four language skills—reading, speaking, listening, and writing— and therefore, help them increase their proficiency (Carreira et al., 2017). To ensure this happens, the same scholars introduce ACTFL standards in the design of their PBL projects while focusing on skills development, authenticity—real needs or problems—and student connections to their interests and motivations. Purpose Based on the approaches mentioned, it has become evident that curriculum design and instruction methods are at the core of the equitable pedagogical transformation required to better address the needs of marginalized student populations such as Heritage Language Learners (HLLs). Consequently, the present project seeks to implement shifts at the curricular and AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 29 instructional levels by designing a model unit for the AP Spanish Language and Culture course, which: 1. Works as a sample of a general framework that could be extrapolated to all units of AP Spanish Language and Culture courses. 2. Includes research-based methods for effective teaching of HLLs in both HL and mixed settings of second language learners (L2) and HLLs. 3. Aims to embrace and preserve students’ ways of knowing. 4. Provides tools to develop critical thinking skills through analysis of and reflection on Hispanic history, cultural legacy, and current trends and issues. 5. Opens classroom space for social transformation. 6. Enhances the opportunities of the Hispanic population to access post-secondary education thereby improving their socioeconomic prospects. Methods This project is inspired by culturally responsive and sustaining pedagogies, and it is aimed at better responding to the needs of urban, Spanish-speaking HLLs by incorporating research-based teaching methods for these students in HL and mixed settings. Besides that, three other ideas played an essential role in the design of the unit model: first is the multiliteracies perspective, inspired by the Learning by Design (Kalantzis and Cope, 2015), a framework in which the students can develop higher order thinking skills through authentic and multimodal sources of information; second, following Carreira et al. (2017), is the belief that mixed classes of L2 and HLLs can be successful and equally beneficial for both types of students; and third, following Glynn (2018), is the assumption that the classroom and the teaching-learning continuum can become a space of transformation for a more just society. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 30 Following Parra’s (2020) adoption of the multiliteracies approach to HL teaching, this project includes the design of a model unit that incorporates a framework that can be extrapolated to all units of an AP Spanish Language and Culture course for mixed classes of L2 and HL learners. The unit, which comprises materials for between 15 to 20 sessions, will focus on one of the six mandatory themes of this AP course, Personal and Public Identities, while also connecting with other themes. It will be structured according to the knowledge processes proposed by Kalantzis and Cope (2015) and adopted by Parra (2020) (see Fig.1). Figure 1 Learning by Design knowledge processes Note. Kalantzis and Cope., (2015) as adapted by Parra (2020) Procedures Exploration of College Board resources for AP Spanish and Language The first step of the design process was the exploration of the different sections and tasks that the AP Spanish Language and Culture exam entails (see Table 3). In this regard, the College AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 31 Board provides the opportunity to check previous exam prompts, including student-scored samples. Table 3 AP Spanish Language and Culture exam Section 1 Section IA: Multiple Choice 30 questions, 40 minutes, 23% of the score Section IB: Multiple Choice with Audio 35 questions, 55 minutes, 27% of the score Section 2 Section IIA: Free Response Written 2 questions, 1 hour and 10 minutes, 25% of the score • Interpersonal Writing: Read and reply to an email message. • Presentational Writing: Write an argumentative essay. Section IIB: Free Response Spoken 2 questions, 18 minutes, 25% of the score • Interpersonal Speaking: Participate in 5 exchanges in a simulated conversation. • Presentational Speaking: Deliver a 2-minute presentation in response to a prompt in which you compare a cultural feature of a Spanish-speaking community with which you are familiar to your own community or another community. Note.Adapted from College Board (2025) Discussion about the College Board curriculum supervision After this first exploration of the exam, it becomes essential to get familiar with the course. However, it is important first to note that there are two options when offering a course that prepares AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 32 students to take an AP exam. The first one is opting out of the College Board course approval process. This decision comes with pros and cons. On the one hand, it allows both high school and educators the freedom to create courses that are tailor-made to better respond to the needs of their students. On the other hand, it prevents schools from listing their courses as AP courses, and therefore, students’ transcripts will not show they took an AP class. Also, it does not allow for both students and instructors to access College Board materials and resources. Conversely, the second option demands that those institutions offering any AP course go through an approval process. Schools are consequently asked to send their course syllabi for verification by the College Board. Although it is not required to adopt the College Board’s proposed curriculum and unit guides, in my experience as a former AP teacher and working with other AP courses educators, most of the time teachers tend to do so. If it is admitted that the implementation of a new curriculum needs the support of both school administration and teachers, this backup will be more likely if this new approach aligns with the scope and key points currently in place. In other words, the present proposal tries to respect essential elements and guidelines provided in the College Board unit guides to encourage AP Spanish Language and Culture teachers to adopt them by embedding them within their approved courses. If these modifications required a new approval, it is something that schools would need to verify with the College Board, but it is likely that if such changes respect the unit guides, it will not be required. Alignment with the College Board AP unit guides Once this design decision was taken, it was necessary to select one unit from the unit guides in which to implement the described framework. “Unit 2: The Influence of Language and Culture on Identity” was finally selected for its capacity to clearly demonstrate how the proposed AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 33 framework could be integrated into the existing AP Spanish Language and Culture curriculum. With this decision came the need to explore existing guidelines for Unit 2, and therefore, the selection of skills, learning outcomes, themes, contexts, essential questions, and task types (see Table 4). Table 4 Selection of key elements from AP unit guide: The influence of Language and Culture on Identity AP Themes and Contexts Primary Theme and Contexts Personal and Public Identities / Las identidades personales y públicas • Personal Beliefs / Las creencias personales • Personal Interests / Los intereses personales • Self-Image / La autoestima Secondary Themes and Contexts. Beauty and Aesthetics/La belleza y la estética • Defining Creativity / Definiciones de la creatividad • Language and Literature / El lenguaje y la literatura Contemporary Life / La vida contemporánea Essential Questions • Social Customs and Values / Las tradiciones y los valores sociales • Relationships / Las relaciones personales • How does one’s identity evolve over time?/¿Cómo se desarrolla nuestra identidad a lo largo del tiempo? • How does language shape our cultural identity? / ¿Cómo moldea la lengua nuestra identidad cultural? • How does the art of a community reflect its public identify? / ¿Cómo refleja el arte de una comunidad su identidad pública? AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Skills and Learning 1: Comprehend written, audio, audiovisual, and visual text (text, pictures, and outcomes numbers). • 34 1.A: Describe the literal meaning of the text. o 1.A.1: Identify the main idea. o 1.A.2: Identify supporting/relevant details. o 1.A.3: Retell or summarize information in narrative form. 2: Make interdisciplinary and cultural connections. • 2.A: Make cultural connections. o 2.A.1: Identify and/or describe content and connections among cultural topics. o 2.A.3: Explain how information from a text connects or relates to the target cultural topics or phenomena. • 2.B: Make connections in and across disciplines. o 2.B.3: Explain how information from a text connects or relates to interdisciplinary topics or phenomena. 3: Interpret the content of written or audio texts (words). • 3.A: Interpret the distinguishing features of a text. o 3.A.1: Identify the intended audience. o 3.A.2: Identify the purpose. o 3.A.3: Identify and/or describe the point(s) of view, perspective(s), tone, or attitude. 4: Make meanings from words and expressions. • 4.A: Determine the meaning of familiar and unfamiliar words. o • 4.A.2: Deduce meaning of unfamiliar words or expressions. 4.B: Use words appropriate for a given context. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs o 35 4.B.1: Use a variety of vocabulary in written and spoken communication. o 4.B.2: Explain and use idiomatic and culturally authentic expressions. 7: Communicate through spoken presentations. • 7.A: Plan and research an issue or topic for presentational speaking. o 7.A.1: Use a process to plan spoken presentations. o 7.A.2: Use research strategies to gather information and evidence for inclusion in spoken presentations. • 7.B: Use appropriate vocal and visual strategies to communicate an idea in presentational speaking. o 7.B.1: Produce spoken presentations in the appropriate register with an introduction, development of topic, and conclusion. o 7.B.2: Use transitional expressions and cohesive devices to create paragraph-length discourse in spoken presentations. o 7.B.3: Use pronunciation in spoken presentations that is comprehensible to speakers of the target language. o 7.B.4: Use effective intonation patterns, pacing, and delivery in spoken presentations. o 7.B.5: Use communication strategies, such as circumlocution and paraphrasing, to maintain spoken presentations. • 7.C: Use appropriate language and vocabulary for the intended audience in presentational speaking. o 7.C.1: Use a variety of grammar and syntax in spoken presentations. o 7.C.2: Produce simple, compound, and complex sentences in a variety of time frames in spoken presentations. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs o 7.C.3: Monitor language production; recognize errors and attempt self-correction in spoken presentations. • 7.D: Express a perspective with details and examples to illustrate an opinion or idea in presentational speaking. o 7.D.1: Explain ideas and opinions with examples in spoken presentations. o 7.D.2: Compare features (including products, practices, and perspectives) of target cultural communities to those of the student’s own community in spoken presentations. 8: Communicate through written presentations. • 8.A: Plan and research an issue or topic for presentational writing. o 8.A.1: Use a process to plan written presentations. o 8.A.2: Use research strategies to gather information and evidence for inclusion in written presentations. • 8.B: Use appropriate writing strategies to communicate an idea for presentational writing. o 8.B.1: Produce written presentations in the appropriate register with an introduction, development of topic, and a conclusion. o 8.B.2: Use communication strategies, such as circumlocution and paraphrasing, to maintain written presentations. • 8.C: Understand and apply appropriate and varied syntactical expressions in presentational writing o 8.C.1: Use transitional expressions and cohesive devices to create paragraph-length discourse in written presentations. o 36 8.C.2: Use a variety of grammar and syntax in written presentations. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs o 37 8.C.3: Produce simple, compound, and complex sentences in a variety of time frames in written presentations. o 8.C.4: Use standard conventions of the written language (e.g., capitalization, orthography, accents, punctuation) in written presentations. o 8.C.5: Monitor language production; recognize errors and attempt self-correction in written presentations. • 8.D: Express a perspective with details and examples to illustrate an opinion or idea for written presentations. o 8.D.1: Explain ideas and opinions with examples in written presentations. o 8.D.2: Integrate information from sources and cite them appropriately in written presentations. AP-Type tasks Interpretive Communication • • Reading: o Press article and charts. o Literary text. Listening: o Audio report. Presentational Communication • Spoken: o • Cultural Comparison. Written: o Note. Adapted from College Board (2025) Argumentative Essay. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 38 Introduction of the proposed curriculum framework Not only might the selection of the key elements from the College Board unit guide encourage teachers to adopt the curriculum, but it can also guide instruction through exam-type stimuli. The task-based approach is apparent in the unit guide which obliges to the introduction of critical thinking skills, topics, and pedagogical methods that respond more effectively to mixed learners’ settings. Rather than a succession of themes and activities designed to pass an exam, I used a framework to make meaning of the course. The unit was, therefore, structured from a macrobased approach (Kagan and Dillon, 2001) following the Learning by Design knowledge processes by Kalantzis and Cope (2015) and adopted by Parra (2020) as mentioned earlier. This model allowed for introducing complex themes, developing challenging tasks, and enhancing higherorder skills, such as those involved in critical thinking. Figure 2 shows how I evolved this framework to introduce different spheres of knowledge that facilitate the scaffolding of the learning process from the students’ contexts to more complex scenarios. Figure 2 Spheres and knowledge processes Note. The figure is adapted from Parra (2020), following Kalantzis and Cope (2025), and has been modified to introduce spheres of influence. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 39 Guiding idea and scaffolding Two key aspects of curriculum design are the careful selection of resources and the design of activities. Nonetheless, it is even more important to find a guiding idea that is powerful enough to connect the unit. Rooted in the AP theme, Personal and Public Identities, and the main essential question, How does one’s identity evolve over time?, migrant “hybrid” identities were selected as the guiding idea. There were two reasons for this selection. First was the belief that possesses the capacity to offer a rich tapestry of resources that depict a lesser-known vision of the diversity of Hispanic communities and societies. Second was the possibility for students to connect these realities with their own experiences and contexts. In particular, resources focused on the Peruvian-Japanese Nikkei people and the Spanish of Chinese descent. Once the resources were selected, it was essential to determine the type of activities that each knowledge step required, while AP-type tasks were contextualized and integrated throughout the unit (see Fig.3). Figure 3 Spheres and knowledge processes for Unit 2 Note. The figure is adapted from Parra (2020), following Kalantzis and Cope (2025), and has been modified to introduce spheres of influence, activity descriptors, and AP-type tasks in the unit sequence. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 40 In this regard, activity design aims to achieve a balance between developing language proficiency, enhancing higher-order academic skills, and providing engaging cultural content (see Fig. 4). These three elements intertwine in a way that none becomes a mere byproduct of the other two. For instance, the development of higher-order skills demands inspiring content upon which to build them and a higher degree of language proficiency to make them visible. Consequently, language proficiency development is achieved through engaging content and thinking strategies that require the use of the language at a higher level. Finally, effective content learning is facilitated by academic skills that allow one to delve into it and by the language proficiency needed to process and reflect on the texts used. Figure 4 Interconnected Learning Another aspect that has been carefully taken into account is the introduction of students’ background and experiences as valued sources of knowledge that are also subject to analysis and reflection (Paris et al., 2014). In this sense, the unit provides several opportunities for learners to revisit prior activities to expand and reflect on them through a critical lens. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 41 Design of the unit The sequence of materials, resources, and activities that shaped this unit is presented following the Learning by Design model introduced by Kalantzis and Cope (2015). For clarity and convenience in sharing resources and collecting feedback, a website was designed with all the components that are part of the unit (see Appendix A). Experiencing the known The first knowledge step, “Experiencing the known,” seeks to have students connect with their background knowledge while engaging with the central theme of the unit. Student experiences are valued as a resource from which to build new knowledge. The self-perception of the idea of identity is brought up in the class. It consists of three different activities. The first one is a group activity in which students discuss the elements that, in their opinion, comprise the idea of identity. This is one of the activities whose product will be later be analyzed as a tool for reflecting on previous knowledge. The second activity aims to explore personal identity through art. Taking a painting of Peruvian artist Eduardo Tokeshi as an example, students create their own version of this artifact by reflecting first on the shape of their identity, the content to fill the shape with, and the way this content is structured. Think-Pair-Share, a Gallery Walk, or other student-centered activities can be set up for students to share their work. Finally, the third activity invites students to reflect on their insights about American identity through the design of a poster. No directions are given except for the prompt that the final product must represent the student’s vision of America's identity. As in the first activity, the final product will facilitate critical analysis and reflection. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 42 Experiencing the new The second step begins by placing students in uncharted territory. They transition from the first sphere of proximity, the “self,” to the “community.” This process is carefully scaffolded, starting with a family member interview that connects them to their own families or significant others. The teacher guides the question design to ensure that students cover essential topics of discussion. No further action is needed concerning the interview at this step. The second component is crucial since it presents new cultural content and information decoding and processing activities. In particular, it consists of two different readings that introduce the Nikkei people from Peru. Reading strategies are divided into three stages: pre-reading, during reading, and post-reading. At this point, it is essential to mention that although HLLs benefit more from a macro approach to the resources (Carreira et al., 2017), pre-reading activities are designed in such a manner that is not focused solely on the form, but on vocabulary and cultural context. Regarding the latter, two activities were designed. In one micro research project, students work in groups to respond to four different “W” questions from four to five images connected to Nikkei culture: What, Who, Where, and When. A jigsaw activity can follow wherein the teacher arranges students in expert groups that are uniquely working on one of the questions. After the research is finished, the teacher rearranges the students into groups with at least one member from every expert group. The second activity that provides context is a short video from the Prime Minister’s office of Japan that contextualizes the Nikkei community from its origins to the present day. This video is ideal for a check of comprehension and to introduce an AP-type multiple-choice activity. As for the vocabulary, this is presented in context of images and words AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 43 that students need to match and guess. Vocabulary was selected to incorporate words that not only were linguistically challenging but also culturally interesting. About “during the reading” phase, two different readings are used. The first one is an adapted version of two different interviews with Eduardo Tokeshi. The second one is a short story written by the same artist and titled “Butsudan.” It is, in fact, a literary personal narration that, contextualized by the interview, allows students to approach a literary text in Spanish. For the first reading, the focus is on text classification, elements identification, and annotation strategies, first, by using strategies proposed by Kalantzis and Cope (2025) and, second, with a more in-depth approach through an adapted and scaffolded version of Cornell notes (Cornell University). For the second reading, students have autonomy in text annotation and work in mixed groups on two types of tasks: content and form. For both, the teacher needs to group learners looking for collaboration and positive interdependence of both HLLs and L2Ls, which, following Carreira et al. (2018), implies the assignment of the most challenging task of the activity for every group. Finally, a “post-reading” reflection is required. A “Y” chart or a similar graphic organizer can be helpful to organize ideas, and a guiding question is also needed to stay on topic. In this case, students will need to delve into the role that family plays on identity formation. Conceptualizing by naming Still centered in the idea of identity within a community, students explore and interact with definitions of the main concepts of the unit: self, community, society, and identity. At the same time, the concept wall created in the first knowledge step is revisited according to a template that shows different spheres of influence, from “self” to “society.” Students, consequently, need to rearrange their original answers within the concept-map template provided AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 44 (see Appendix A, Fig. 4A). The teacher will then discuss with the whole class using a template that has already been filled out to trigger discussion and invite students to make adjustments based on the discussion if needed. Once the class has discussed what elements belong to each sphere, students are ready to revisit their family members’ interview responses. They work in groups to identify identity-building factors and to classify them in the spheres of influence concept map. Finally, they show autonomy by working individually and repeating the process for Eduardo Tokeshi’s selected interview responses. Following these conceptualization and categorization activities, students will work on an AP-type oral cultural comparison between their communities and a Hispanic-speaking one that responds to the following guiding question: How does family influence personal identity formation? While a cultural comparison can be challenging for both types of students, L2 students might feel comfortable memorizing some sentence structures that will trigger their speech. In contrast, HLLs, better than memorizing, will need strategies to organize their discourse, such as practice structure and note-taking, before the recording of the cultural comparison. Analyzing critically In this knowledge step, students move from community-focused resources to more complex societal ones. Among the relations that societies establish with identity, the idea of nationality or citizenship is a key one. Consequently, this step will help students find an answer to the role that nationality plays in identity. This section of the unit will comprise two main components: a case study to analyze the role of nationality in identity formation in a particular community of Spain, and a critical reflection of students’ perspectives on American identity. First, as in previous steps, students will be guided from their contexts and experiences to unfamiliar contexts. For instance, family influence in identity building was explored with a AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 45 family member interview before they could delve into Eduardo Tokeshi’s resources. In this step, however, the process is the opposite. Critical analysis is triggered with resources that are connected to the reality of Spanish citizens of Chinese origin before they are ready to critically analyze their society. The first material the student will interact with is a radio interview with Quan Zhou, a Spanish cartoonist and activist of Chinese origin. The interview allows for contextualization, checking for understanding, and practice of AP-type multiple-choice tasks. After this, Quan Zhou’s cartoons, which depict her experiences as a racialized woman of Chinese origin in Spain, become the tool to enhance critical analysis. Students will make predictions based on some of her work, which is presented decontextualized. Later, students will engage in a chalk-talk strategy (Ritchart et al., 2011) to comment, discuss, analyze, and raise questions about the different scenes presented. Chalk-talk is also ideal for HLLs because they can engage in sharing opinions in writing with varying levels of depth, which provides support for how to present ideas academically. Finally, students will work in pairs to decode a new cartoon from Quan Zhou and later are asked to transfer the concept to their society. For this, students will receive a template of the cartoon without dialogues that they will need to create. In this activity, HLLs lean on L2Ls for issues of spelling and accentuation, and L2Ls rely on HLLs’ intuitive knowledge of the target language for resolving problems of usage. Since the activity replicates an informal setting, it is an opportunity to integrate HLLs’ linguistic varieties and dialects in a class activity. The second component will focus on the critical analysis of their society, which was started with the adaptation of Quan Zhou’s work. On this occasion, students revisit the American identity posters they created in the first step. Critical analysis of their work happens through the use of a strategy titled “Who is in? Who is out?” inspired by “Who gains? Who loses” from AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 46 Kalantzis and Cope (2025). Guiding questions for the activity include a reflection about the intention, the power of symbol representation, and how art/language has implications in the way national identities are built. Applying appropriately In the last step of the unit, students will be asked to apply what they have learned to an academic presentational task: an AP-type argumentative essay. To accomplish writing an essay, students will find a guiding question—Is nationality crucial in the building process of personal identity?—and will also be presented with two complementary resources they can use to support their ideas—a newspaper article written by Quan Zhou and a data graphic that records the family member responses of the class to the interview question that was connected to the role of nationality. Since the AP essay is probably the most challenging task for HLLs, a mini-lesson on expectations and writing structure is required. Before submission, students will engage in a peerreview activity in which both L2Ls and HLLs collaborate to support their peers in areas where they feel confident. Feedback results and revisions The curriculum was shared with two in-service colleagues who teach the AP Spanish Language and Culture course. The context of their courses has changed over the last few years, with an increasing number of HLLs enrolled in their AP classes or in courses that prepare students to take the exam. The first teacher is an expert in L2 education who has experienced the difficulties in responding to the needs of HLLs in their classes. The second teacher is a very experienced educator with a deep knowledge of cultural education who excels in scaffolding critical thinking skills. Both participants reflect the reality of many language classes where more linguistically oriented or culture/content-oriented teacher profiles can be found. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 47 Feedback collection was implemented through a Google Form (see Appendix B). The goals were to gather a general evaluation of the framework and the model unit, assess the accessibility and navigability of the website, identify areas for improvement, and evaluate the likelihood that teachers would implement this framework in their AP classes. The first question—Overall, how satisfied are you with the curriculum proposal?—shows 100% satisfaction with the curriculum and the unit proposed. Similar results, 95%, in terms of accessibility and navigability of the website. Two features of the model stood out to both instructors. First, the differentiated strategies are embedded in the unit for both L2 and HL learners. The second feature is the integration of AP-type tasks that help to prepare students to succeed in the AP exam. Opportunities to engage with meaningful content, development of critical thinking skills, the quality of the resources used, and scaffolding were highlighted once. Interestingly, none selected the “Linguistic content in context”. The reasons behind these selections can be multiple. Regarding “opportunities to engage with the content”, this feature could be connected to either “quality of resources”, and “deep of knowledge and critical thinking skills”, descriptors that were also selected once. About the linguistic content option, teachers surveyed might not have identified language instruction strategies embedded throughout the unit or otherwise found them not outstanding. The third section of the form allowed for teachers to openly share areas that could be expanded, detailed, or improved. Teacher #1 seems to show concerns about practical ways to implement grading on tasks that require collaboration by stating: “Consider providing an opportunity for HL students to be the "experto/a" and the L2 their "cliente". Part of the HL grade could be based on how well their client performs on a cultural comparison or simulated conversation. The L2 grade could be based on how well they listen and take advice from their AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 48 expert partner.” Although grading is frequently a matter of concern for teachers, the suggestion from Teacher#1 should be taken with care. The main risk of this comment is that it could lead to HLL becoming a resource for L2, but not the opposite, which implies perpetuating the most common scenario of mixed classes. Teacher #2 also shared ideas about collaboration strategies between L2 and HL students, and suggested that a mini lesson could be integrated as preparation for essay writing: “It is assumed that a mini lesson in essay writing may be necessary for HLLs. Where L2Ls typically bring stronger essay writing skills to the table, it might be nice to scaffold an activity where L2Ls teach essential essay traits to HLLs.” In contrast to Teacher#1’s suggestion, Teacher#2 makes the L2 learner a resource for the HL student. While collaboration should aim for positive interdependence, as discussed previously, L2 teachers will more naturally tend to see HL as a source of linguistic support for L2 students. Consequently, they will need to think thoroughly about how to balance collaboration between these two groups so that each can benefit from the other. The fourth block of questions assessed the likelihood that this model could be implemented in real classes. Both teachers indicated that they will likely/very likely use this model unit in their courses. The same would be true if they could access to a whole set of units designed for AP Spanish Language and Culture, following the framework proposed. However, one of them showed a neutral opinion relative to the need to adapt the rest of the units themselves, while the other saw it as likely. In the final suggestions section, Teacher #1 expressed how statements of inquiry could help with academic AP tasks: “One of the questions to students asks them about university life but students taking the AP test would not have had experience with university life. Using the poster and sticky notes to write an overarching statement of inquiry as a class could be helpful. AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 49 The instructor would refer to it as students write essays, emails or cultural comparisons.” This comment offers an interesting idea that could guide students when facing some critical reflections, whether in the format of an AP task or not. Teacher #2 highlighted that the framework and the model unit were built taking into consideration the assets that both types of students bring to the classroom: “Well designed. Addresses extremely pertinent conditions in an AP classroom and harnesses inherent strengths”. Feedback is essential for any curriculum design, and as I went through the comments and revisited the unit, I found it necessary to implement some changes and apply adjustments to strengthen the model unit. The following table summarizes the changes that were introduced after the revision process. Table 5 Revisions Area Modifications/Improvements Learning outcomes Connect AP learning outcomes with every knowledge step. Introduce equity learning outcomes adopted from the Social Justice Standards (Chiariello et al., 2022). Language instruction and Highlight how language objectives are present and designed to be taught in resources context. Make linguistic tools visible. Abilities/Skills Introduce icons that connect each activity with essential skills of the framework. Inspired by Hackman’s (2005) component for social justice, and AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 50 HLLs pedagogies, I developed 4 elements: Information processing, Critical Analysis, Language Content in Context, and Reflection. Discussion Future practice and research Any curriculum is designed to come alive in class. Only in actual classes are the principles that frame units and lesson plans tested by both teachers and students. The first step moving forward would therefore be to implement this unit in a real setting. In the future, there will be a need to develop at least two more units that could be sequenced during a semester. This would allow to see how the proposed framework interacts with other parts of the AP Spanish and Language Curriculum, while providing more accurate feedback from educators and learners. This feedback would lead to a thorough revision process before developing the total six units. Research suggests that the main reason for HLLs when taking language courses is to connect with both their families and local communities in the United States, as well as countries of family origin (Carreira et al., 2017). In this regard, qualitative research on HLLs’ emotional responses to this framework would be very valuable. In terms of achievement, a quantitative study could compare AP scores of HLLs enrolled in a course following this model and HLLs enrolled in a traditional AP course, as well as performance in post-AP education, such as the Bridge program, considering drop-out rates, GPA, and degree completion, among other essential indicators. Conclusion I believe that this curriculum proposal has the potential to respond to the beautiful challenge of providing quality language education in mixed settings, and therefore, respond to the needs of the group that has been historically ignored in language classrooms. Although an AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 51 ambitious endeavor, Utah, thanks to its know-how in Dual Immersion Education, is the perfect context to introduce approaches that research has demonstrated effective for mixed classes. A context that is also ideal because it provides a clear pathway to superior education for the HL population through the Bridge Program. From a more personal perspective, this project has allowed me to explore the work of very inspiring scholars, from philosophical principles to practical implementations of equitable approaches to curriculum design. In this regard, the main challenge I encountered, like in any curriculum project, is to translate ideas into meaningful and powerful learning experiences, which was particularly exigent when introducing AP-type tasks. 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AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Appendix A Unit 2: The Influence of Language and Culture on Identity Fig. 1A Home webpage 64 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Note. https://sites.google.com/view/curriculumspanap/home 65 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Fig. 2A Experiencing the known webpage Note. https://sites.google.com/view/curriculumspanap/1-experiencing-the-known 66 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Fig. 3A Experiencing the new webpage 67 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 68 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 69 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Note. https://sites.google.com/view/curriculumspanap/2-experiencing-the-new 70 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Fig. 4A Conceptualizing by naming webpage 71 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 72 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Note. https://sites.google.com/view/curriculumspanap/3-conceptualizing-by-naming Fig. 5A Analyzing critically webpage 73 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs 74 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Note. https://sites.google.com/view/curriculumspanap/4-analyzing-critically Fig. 6A Applying appropriately webpage 75 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Note. https://sites.google.com/view/curriculumspanap/5-applying-appropriately 76 AP SPANISH CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION FOR HLLs Appendix B Feedback form Fig. 1B Google form used for teacher feedback 77