TECHNOLOGY AND EMOTIONAL SELF-REGULATION IN YOUNG CHILDREN TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 2 Abstract This mixed method study explored the relationship between technology use among toddlers 1836 months during the COVID-19 quarantine and the emotional and academic behaviors noticed in the 2023-2024 kindergarten cohort. The findings revealed that 63% of parent respondents, reported their children exceeded the recommended one hour or less of daily screen time. These parents frequently used devices for entertainment, education, and crucially, for calming or distracting the child during emotional moments. Concurrently, teachers reported increased social and emotional challenges among these students, including a 65% increase in dealing with conflict using physical aggression and unpredictable behaviors compared to prior years. Academic attention-related issues were also more prevalent, with 82% of teachers observing more inattentiveness during transitions and 76% noting increased restless behaviors at the rug. The data suggest a possible connection between higher screen time during toddler years and diminished self-regulation abilities in later life. This emphasizes the need for careful management of early technology exposure and the critical role of educating parents about alternative techniques to foster self-regulation skills in young children. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 3 Contents Technology and Emotional Self-Regulation in Young Children .................................................... 5 Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 7 Screen Usage Rising for Young Children ................................................................................... 7 Screen Use Higher During COVID-19 Pandemic....................................................................... 8 Self-Regulatory Aspects of Executive Functioning .................................................................... 9 Mobile Devices and Caregiver Interactions: Technoference .................................................... 11 Mobile Devices and Education ................................................................................................. 13 Screen-time Recommendations, Limits and Interventions ....................................................... 14 Methods......................................................................................................................................... 16 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 17 Data Collection.......................................................................................................................... 19 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 21 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 22 Section 1: Parent Survey Results .............................................................................................. 22 Reported Toddler Technology Usage .................................................................................... 23 Reported Preschool Attendance and COVID-19 Health Precautions ................................... 25 Section 2: Teacher Survey Results ............................................................................................ 27 Kindergartener Emotional Self-Regulation ........................................................................... 27 Academic Attention-related Question Results ...................................................................... 31 Speech Articulation and Fine Motor Pencil Grip .................................................................. 36 Parent and Teacher Survey Comparison ................................................................................... 37 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Parent Survey ............................................................................................................................ 41 Teacher Survey .......................................................................................................................... 43 Teacher and Parent Survey Comparison ................................................................................... 44 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 45 Future research .......................................................................................................................... 46 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 47 References ..................................................................................................................................... 48 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 53 Parent Survey ............................................................................................................................ 53 Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 56 TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 4 Kindergarten Teacher Survey.................................................................................................... 56 Appendix C ................................................................................................................................... 59 Weber State University IRB Approval...................................................................................... 59 Appendix D ................................................................................................................................... 61 School District Approval TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 5 Technology and Emotional Self-Regulation in Young Children Technology has lasting benefits; however, research has found that the sooner an infant/toddler is exposed to digital technology, the less ability the child has to emotionally selfregulate or develop executive functioning skills (Danet et al., 2022). A longitudinal research study of children found that emotional self-regulation and executive functioning decreased when children were exposed to extended use of technology between the ages of two and four, whereas when children were exposed to technology after the age of four or five there was no meaningful change in those behaviors (Denet et al., 2022). Another study found that high-dose mobile app use was associated with lower inhibition performance a year later (McNeill et al., 2019). Similarly, media usage by children two years of age has been negatively correlated with selfregulation for children at four years of age, whereas media usage at four years of age was not associated with self-regulation at six years of age (Radesky et al., 2014). Collectively, this research suggests that young children's brains may need further development before being exposed to technology in order to avoid adverse effects on their emotional self-regulation and executive functioning at age five to six. According to Mostafavi (2022), the period spanning preschool to kindergarten is characterized by children exhibiting behaviors that can be challenging. The temporary use of mobile devices by parents to calm a child may seem harmless and is quite realistic, however if it becomes a habit it will strengthen over time, and it may have long term effects. The more devices are used to calm children, the less practice they have in learning to manage emotions and using alternative methods to self-regulate (Mostafavi, December 12, 2022). Existing studies on deficits of self-regulation of kindergarteners in correlation to digital technology use as toddlers are rare, however Kwan et al. (2024) conducted studies of technology TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 6 use during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. Their findings showed that two or more hours of screen time per day was associated with lower psychological welfare and higher externalizing behaviors among preschool children and that screen use returned to pre-pandemic levels in 2021 except among children living in poverty (Kwan et al., 2024). Typical students of the 2023-2024 kindergarten class were aged 18-36 months during the peak time of COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021 when they experienced extended periods of quarantine and were reported to have increased technology usage (Kwan et al., 2024). The purpose of this study is to investigate toddlers’ technology use during the stay-at-home quarantine and their emotional, language, and small motor development during the kindergarten year. Three research questions will be examined: 1. What were the retrospective parent-reported technology use, self-regulation, preschool circumstances and educational activities of the 2023-2024 kindergarten students as toddlers in 2020-2021? 2. What were the teacher-reported emotional, self-regulation, attention, externalizing behavior, speech articulation and fine motor pencil grip skills of students in the 20232024 kindergarten class? 3. Did students who were 18-36 months old at the time of the COVID-19 quarantine cry at drop-off and/or need a comfort item in the 2023-2024 kindergarten year? This study surveyed kindergarten teachers and parents to compare students’ selfregulation skills, externalizing behaviors such as aggression or cruelty to others, speech articulation, and/or fine motor skills in 2023-2024 kindergarten classes to other years. The parent TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 7 survey also explored to what extent toddlers used technology/devices during the COVID-19 pandemic and what preschool looked like for these toddlers. Literature Review Rising Screen Usage among Young Children Plowman et al. (2013) interviewed preschool educators about children's use of technology. These adult educators reported that three to four-year-olds know more about technology than they do. Children born into this digital world have known nothing else and fully assimilate into it (Plowman et al., 2013). A mobile device sampling in Southeast Michigan, USA, reported that among the children aged three-five years old who had their own devices, 35% of them recorded 115.3 minutes or about two hours of use per day (Radesky et al., 2020). An Australian study showed electronic media use at one and a half hours a day (Cliff et al., 2018). Another US study showed two to four-year-olds spending an average of 2.4 hours per day using screen media (Danet et al., 2022). This number tripled between 2011 to 2017 (McNeill et al., 2019). Even though the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends no more than one hour per day of screen time for children under age five, studies show that overexposure to devices exceeds this recommendation (Tan et al., 2023). Extreme technology use shows negative effects on a child’s psychosocial development and behaviors such as high social anxiety, aggression, and low self-confidence (Gülbetekin et al., 2023). Lawrence and colleagues (2020) compared screen type and age of first use for self-regulation. Their findings showed that the younger the age and the longer the duration of device use, the lower the self-regulation score. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 8 Recent guideline changes in the US show concern that using media as a distraction or calming tool diminishes children's ability to develop self-regulation techniques needed in their future (Cliff et al., 2018). There is a connection between the use of devices to calm and emotional reactions such as anger, frustration and sadness especially in boys and children who already exhibit hyperactivity or impulsivity (Mostafavi, December 12, 2022). The correlations between device use for calming and emotional reactivity is high possibly because the habit to use devices to manage hard behaviors strengthens over time with little practice in emotionalregulation strategies as well as the inhibition aspects of executive functions are not responsive during screen use (Radesky et al., 2023). Higher Screen Use During COVID-19 Pandemic In 2020 a national pandemic occurred due to the COVID-19 virus. To limit the spread of this virus many schools were physically closed, online learning was incorporated, isolation and social distancing was mandated and all, but absolutely necessary activities were cancelled (Madigan et al., 2022). According to the theorist Jean Piaget, this is the stage of life that facilitates all future development (Cherry, 2024). Gill (2024), in describing Piaget’s four stages of development, explained that the second developmental stage is when children begin to imitate or mimic others and begin to participate in symbolic or pretend play. This stage is called the preoperational stage and occurs from ages two to seven. The kindergarteners in this study were 18-36 months at the onset of this pandemic. At an age when socialization and play are key in development, these children were forced to be isolated for up to a year during the COVID-19 pandemic. Studies have shown an association of unprecedented screen time during this pandemic (Sequin et al., 2021). Sequin et al. (2021) also reported that screen time use has been linked to TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 9 adverse mental health outcomes, delayed brain development, and hindered social communication skills. Self-Regulatory Aspects of Executive Functioning To determine the relationship between digital media use, emotional regulation, and executive functioning we must first understand what each of these aspects entails. Emotional self-regulation is the ability to control behavior, emotional reactions and social interactions despite impulses and distractions (Cliff et al., 2018). Executive functioning is a higher order cognitive process that helps us to reason, problem solve and plan (McNeill et al., 2019). Executive functioning includes working memory, the ability to remember and manipulate information in the mind (Law et al., 2023); inhibition, children's ability to suppress emotions and impulses or to resist distractions caused by these emotions and impulses (Choe et al., 2022); and shifting or cognitive flexibility, the ability to switch between tasks (McNeill et al., 2019). The main pathway to social-emotional development is the self-regulatory aspects of executive functioning (Danet et al., 2022). Executive functioning, particularly at preschool age, is connected to later school readiness, academic achievement, less risky life choices, and psychosocial development (McNeill et al., 2019). Behavioral disorders such as depression and anxiety have also been linked in children who spend more time on screens (Abdoli et al., 2024). Self-regulation is an age-dependent skill; children learn to regulate their behavior both internally and externally according to these skills. Internal controls depend on the impact of a child’s environment and their personal regulation skills (Gülbetekin et al., 2023). Using technology to regulate a child's behavior decreases their opportunity to develop the internal skills required to calm themselves later (Cliff et al., 2018). Rapid shifts between sadness and excitement, sudden mood changes and increased impulsiveness are all signs of increased TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 10 dysregulation (Mostafavi, December 12, 2022). External behaviors described by parents consist of anger and impulsiveness while internal behaviors described by parents included insecurities in social situations (Sundqvist et al., 2020). Ages two to five are a critical and sensitive period in life where children develop cognitively, emotionally, socially and physically. Basic habits are formed, and self-care and selfregulation skills are absorbed. The rise in problematic internet and screen use correlates with an increase in behavioral problems such as inattentiveness, aggression, avoidance, and selfconfidence problems as well as weakening of language, social, fine, and gross motor skills (Gülbetekin, et al., 2023). Electroencephalography (EEG) is a tool used to identify neural correlations of cognitive functions by measuring electrical activity in the brain. Law et al. (2023) describes an EEG study which showed a negative effect between infant screen time and cognitive outcomes related to attention and executive functions, including higher order cognitive skills essential for selfregulation, academic achievement, and mental health at age nine. For every additional hour of screen time there is a decrease in the scaled scores of the following tasks: inhibition, shifting between tasks, and working memory (Law et al., 2023). Danet et al. (2022) found associations between the increased time spent on mobile apps and weaker executive function a year later. Additionally, exposure to TV and video media before age three is linked to problems with language development, cognition, attention, executive function and school achievement as the child grows (Radesky et al., 2014). Gülbetekin et al. (2023) reported a corresponding relation between self-regulation, negative behavioral issues and problematic internet use. Research has found that it is the amount TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 11 of screen time, not how the mobile device is used daily, that determines a child's socialemotional development (Radesky et al., 2023). Mobile Devices and Caregiver Interactions: Technoference Screen use may be a catalyst for “cognitive impoverishment” due to its replacement of human interactions (Law et al., 2023). Choe et al. (2022 p. 22) calls this phenomenon “technoference”. Sunqvist et al. (2020) defines technoferenece as interference of personal faceto-face interactions, due to the use of digital technology. Danet et al. (2022) states that executive functions are shaped by experiences of early caregiving, including personal and parental media use. Tan et al. (2023) reported that parental screen time at home and parental monitoring of children’s device use is a predicting factor in children's screen device habits. There is much perplexity among parents about the use of technology in raising children. Some parents prefer children to be outside or reading a book during free time, while other parents insist that the rapport children have for technology will be beneficial to their future lives as adults. It is reported that most parents prefer their children to have a balanced range of activities (Plowman et al., 2013). Caregivers' attitude and behaviors play a role in the amount of screen time a child is given. Caregivers who use devices more often report letting children have more screentime. Parents with strong feelings about the educational benefits of device use, tend to co-use the device with their child (Bergmann, 2022). Danet et al. (2022) found that parental use of devices to calm children has been linked to a child’s weaker metacognition and overall executive functioning. Young children with weaker executive functioning may have more intense emotional reactions, increased impulsivity, and disorganized behavior. Denet’s et al. (2022) investigation aligned with findings from research TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 12 correlating self-regulatory problems, difficult temperament, and social-emotional delays with higher use of media for calming purposes. High use of electronic media overstimulates the developing brain and replaces time spent in social interactions or other developmental activities (McNeill et al., 2019). Three detrimental effects of high media use for young children are the decrease in child/caregiver activities, fewer language and play interactions, and less creative free play (Radesky et al., 2014). Screens are also being used to distract or handle children's impulses to emotions. A report by Kabali et al. (2015) stated that most parents used mobile devices to calm children in public. Radesky et al. (2023) suggested that increased emotional defiance prompts an escalated use of devices for calming with less emotional regulation strategies being used or taught. Sundqvist et al. (2020) reported that increased interruptions of personal interactions due to digital media use intrudes on parent-child communications and interactions as well as hostile responses from parents at being interrupted while using digital media. This less-than-ideal parenting style does not give a child the scaffolding needed for developing emotional regulation. Results of Sundqvist’s et al. (2020) study also found problematic behaviors in children increased with parents decreased attention due to technoference. Parents report allowing extra screen time when feeling stressed. The online learning at home directive during the COVID-19 pandemic was an extreme stressor for parents and thus higher stress levels and higher screen usage during the pandemic were reported (Sequin, 2021). Parents may choose digital media over attentiveness to their child due to strong habits, boredom, or the choice to escape of child’s behaviors, which all three in turn lead to increase problematic behaviors in the child (Sundqvist et al., 2020 p. 375). TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 13 Mobile Devices and Education Chen (2020) stated that the use of TV is detrimental to literacy and recent studies have found that tablets are even worse. Surprisingly computers have been shown to aid education in literacy (Chen et al., 2020). Chen (2020) suggests that this unexpected phenomenon could be because computers require more instruction to use, more complex finger motions, and thus the need for parental support and presence. A study conducted by Cerniglia et al. (2021) found children with lower parent support scaffolding had higher dysregulation and significantly lower math and literacy grades. Extended screen time causes bottom-up, or stimuli driven capture of attention in the brain instead of top down, or goal/task driven capture of attention, and this can be affecting the neurodevelopment and education of children (Law et al., 2023). Screens cannot replace human social interactions required for speech and language development (Chen et al., 2021). Bergmann et al. (2022) reported that the higher the screen time during the COVID-19 shutdown, the smaller the gains in vocabulary development. Some parents give their children tablets out of their own parenting frustration; others use tablets for educational purposes, or because of a belief that screen time was educational or beneficial (Tan et al., 2023) rather than providing one on one help due to lack of self confidence in their ability to teach academic skills to their children. Thus, parents are missing moments of opportunity to teach, read to, or interact with their children (Chen et al., 2020). The amount of education a caregiver obtains has a strong association with the duration of screen time use in zero to eight-year-olds. Three hours and twelve minutes is the average screen time used by this age group of caregivers who have less than or equal to a high school diploma. Usage minutes for children of caregivers who have had some college experiences average 2 hr. 24 min while those with a college degree average 1 hr. 38 minutes (Bergmann, et al. 2022). TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 14 Screen-time Recommendations, Limits and Interventions The use of screens has become a standard parenting practice in this modern world because of the ease of portability, affordability, and tactile-based experience for preschool children and toddlers (Cerniglia et al., 2021). Research indicates the earlier children are exposed to media, as well as the increased amount of time at an earlier age, leads to lower self-regulation and cognitive impairments as children develop and grow. Parental use of devices to calm very young children may interfere with coregulation and be counterproductive as children's mobile apps are designed to reinforce behavior and keep the attention of the user for sustained periods of time, and because of this, toddler's transition away from the device is difficult (Munzer et al., 2021). Law et al. (2023) reported that infants aged six to 18 months amass two to three hours of screen time per day. The American Academy of Pediatrics (APA) has recommendations for media use in several articles; do not let media replace other enriching activities or social interactions or as the main technique to calm children (Radesky et al., 2023), limit entertainment media use to one hour a day for children two-five years old (Danet et al., 2022), children over six years be limited to two hours a day with all children up to age eight being under parental supervision (Gülbetekin, et al., 2023), discourage use of media in children under age two (Radesky et al.,2014), and no screen media for 18 months and younger except for video chatting (Law et al., 2023). To enable the best development in children the APA recommends parents supervise high quality media exposure for their young children (Neumann, 2018). Media habits are formed in early childhood; thus, it could be a good window for intervention by educating parents on how to divert attention away from media without tantrums (Munzer et al., 2021). Guidance practices could help parents recognize the purpose for using TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 15 media with their children. Educating parents about self-regulation, coping mechanisms, and media habits could also be helpful (Radesky et al., 2014). Self-regulatory skills can be taught through cognitive training, early childhood interventions and corresponding curriculum for media devices to promote cognitive development (Choe et al., 2022). When parents put limits on digital media use, aggression and distraction problems decreased (Gülbetekin, et al., 2023). Maternal scaffolding, which is an instruction strategy where the learner is given gradual reduced support, can also reduce the negative outcomes of excessive screen time (Cerniglia et al., 2021). Parents helping children understand what they see and learn on educational apps would also be useful (Choe et al., 2022). Frequent use of devices to calm children could replace the moments needed for learning emotional regulation over time, Radesky (2023) also recommends the pediatric health caregivers suggest to parents the use of alternate methods, such as therapy supports, setting timers, giving clear expectations to their children about the use of technology and utilizing apps/programs which have exact stopping points. Possible solutions when tempted to turn to a device to calm a child include use of sensory items, name the emotion and what to do about it, use of color zones to describe how the child feels, offer an alternate behavior, and above all stay calm and wait while the child figures out the emotion before discussing coping skills (Mostafavi, December 12, 2022). "Executive function can be improved over time with sensitive responsive parenting" (Radesky et al, 2023, page 317). Media use is a changeable societal element that influences selfregulation and modifying children's use of media could be a way to reduce societal costs and increase their health (Cliff et al., 2018). Parent and family-level factors such as number of devices in the home, parental monitoring of devices and parents use of screen time are challenging yet changeable factors that can be targeted for interventions to improve children’s TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 16 screen habits (Tan et al., 2023). The rise in problematic internet and screen use correlates with an increase in behavioral problems such as inattentiveness, aggression, avoidance, and selfconfidence problems as well as weakening of language, social, fine, and gross motor skills (Gülbetekin, et al., 2023). Methods A mixed-methods study was conducted to explore three research questions: (1) what the teacher-reported emotional self-regulation, attention, externalizing behavior, speech articulation and fine motor skills of students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class? (2) What were the retrospective parent-reported technology use, self-regulation, preschool circumstances and educational activities of the 2023-2024 kindergarten students as toddlers in 2020-2021? (3) Did these students who were 18-36 months old at the time of the COVID-19 quarantine cry at dropoff and/or need a comfort item in the 2023-2024 kindergarten year? Survey information from teachers and parents was used to find out if there was a connection between parents’ use of technology to calm toddlers and externalizing behaviors in kindergarten. Two sets of data were collected at the same time. The first set of data was a crosssectional convenience sampling home survey of toddlers' technology usage to obtain descriptive quantitative frequencies of technology usage and qualitative data through participant comments. Qualitative data included descriptions of preschool COVID-19 precautions. Convenience sampling was used based on the availability and responses of parents of 2023-2024 kindergarten students, in first grade at the time of the study. The second set of data came from a teacher TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 17 survey used to collect frequencies, and qualitative open-ended data. Qualitative data was gathered based on similar self-regulatory behavioral characteristics reported by kindergarten teachers. Descriptive quantitative and qualitative data were gathered in an embedded design where quantitative data is the larger focus. Qualitative data was used to further understand the quantitative responses. Participants The first group of participants were kindergarten teachers who teach in a school district in the intermountain west (see table 1). There were 47 kindergarten teachers in this district. All teachers willing to participate needed to have taught in the academic years 2023 through 2025 at a minimum. The teacher response rate was 45%. Twenty-one kindergarten teachers responded to the survey. Seventeen of these 21 responses met the requirements of this study. Table 1 Teacher Participant Distribution of Years Teaching Years taught Number of Teachers 2 years 33% (7/21) 3 years 10% (2/21) 4 years 10% (2/21) 5 years 5% (1/21) 6 years 5% (1/21) 7 years 5% (1/21) 17 years 5% (1/21) 21 years 10% (2/21) Eliminated 15% (4/21) Note: Eliminated participants did not meet study requirements. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 18 The second group of participants were the parents of 2023-2024 kindergarten students, first graders at the time of this study. For a convenience sample, personal invites were extended to three first grade teachers at an elementary school in the same school district, asking if they would be willing to send an email to all parents of students in their classes. The email included a link to a survey to understand how technology was used in the home with their toddlers during the COVID-19 pandemic. Convenience sampling was also initiated via text and word of mouth to parents in other areas of this district. Twenty-seven parents responded to the survey questions about their first-grade child. Responses to the parent survey indicated that 59% (16/27) of the participants’ children were female and 41% (11/27) were male, with birth months ranging from August 2017 to July of 2018 (see figure 1). Figure 1 Distribution of Age and Gender of Kindergarten Students during the 2023-2024 School Year Number of Children 6 Male 5 Female 4 3 2 1 0 Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Birth Month Note. This figure shows the age by birth month and gender of the students in the parent survey. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 19 Instruments The instruments used in this study were two descriptive cross-sectional surveys; one for the parents and one for the teachers. A parent survey was developed to find out how and to what extent technology was used during the developmental age of 18-36 months in kindergarten classes of the 2023-2024 school year as well as types of preschools, attendance distribution and COVID precautions in these preschools (see Appendix A). Simultaneously, a second survey targeted kindergarten teachers' perception of emotional self-regulation, academic attention deficits, speech articulation and fine motor pencil grip by comparing the 2023-2024 kindergarten year with other years in each of these classifications (see Appendix B). The idea was to get a snapshot in time of how technology was used as a toddler and what emotional behaviors were seen in these same students by kindergarten teachers. The parent survey collected data on technology use, preschool characteristics, and pandemic-related impacts during the toddler years. The mode of collection for quantitative and qualitative data was a Qualtrics survey containing 19 items across multiple formats: four dichotomous yes/no questions; four checklist questions covering educational, technological, recreational, and physical activities during COVID-19; five open-ended questions parallel to the checklist categories; and six Likert scale questions. Likert scale options varied by question: three questions used a five-point scale (never/none, sometimes, about half the time, most of the time, always); two questions offered duration ratings (less than 1 month, 1–3 months, more than 3 months); and one question assessed daily screen time (less than 1 hour, 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 or more hours. Rather than converting Likert responses to numerical scales, responses were tallied and converted to percentages for table presentation. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 20 A descriptive survey approach using 26 Likert scale questions and four open response questions was created for kindergarten teachers in order to gather data of teachers noticing an increasing inability to self-regulate in the classroom effecting academics and then comparing the data form 2023-2024 to other kindergarten school years. To maximize the reliability of the teacher survey the Child Behavior Checklist, a standardized assessment, was used by the researcher to develop questions that would measure impulse control, attention span externalizing behavior. The teacher survey assessed kindergarten teachers' perceptions of emotional selfregulation, attention, speech articulation, and fine motor skills in the 2023–2024 cohort compared to previous years. To ensure reliability, survey items were developed using the Child Behavior Checklist, a standardized assessment tool, as a framework for measuring impulse control, attention span, and externalizing behavior. The teacher survey contained 30 items: 26 Likert scale questions and four open-ended questions. Likert scale options included: 15 questions with comparison ratings (more/longer, fewer/less/shorter, same); 13 questions with frequency ratings (never, rarely, sometimes, frequently, always/often); and two questions with frequency counts (none, less than five students, five to ten students, greater than ten students). Teacher survey data was collected via Qualtrics and summarized using percentages. To coordinate the parent and teacher surveys, both the teachers and parents were asked if children cried at kindergarten drop-off or needed a comfort item and the duration of each. For qualitative data teachers were also asked to describe any notable changes in externalizing behaviors, social or emotional needs, attention span, fine motor skills or articulation in the 20232024 cohort in comparison to other years. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 21 Data Collection Two surveys were created by the researcher through the Qualtrics Survey tool and sent to the participant groups described above. Both surveys had a component for informed consent from participants and a disclosure giving informed consent to use the data. Before data collection, the researcher obtained IRB approval for this study through the Weber State University (see Appendix C). Permission to conduct the survey was gained from the school district through a separate application process, review board approval, and affirmative email (see Appendix D). Once permission was granted from the IRB committee and the selected school district, a pilot survey was dispatched to several parents in the researcher’s neighborhood and to two kindergarten teachers and three aides at the researcher’s school to validate the reliability of the instruments. Once the pilot surveys were completed and reviewed the 47 teachers in this study were sent an email based on the district all-kindergarten teacher email list to recruit them to the study with the link to the survey, and a reminder email to follow 10 days later. An email with a Qualtrics survey link was sent to parents of three first grade classes in the school the researcher worked in, these students would have attended kindergarten in 2023-2024. A reminder email was sent 10 days later. Data Analysis Once both of the surveys were conducted, the data was trimmed, eliminating any unusable data such as incomplete responses and those that did not meet the study criteria. The data was then analyzed for consistencies and differences between the parent and teacher surveys specifically related to use of technology and self-regulatory behaviors. A total of 21 teachers TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 22 responded to the survey; three teacher responses were eliminated based on the incompletion of the survey and one eliminated because they had not taught in the year 2023-2024 leaving 17 teachers in this study. A total of 30 parents responded to the survey, three parent data responses were trimmed or eliminated due to incompletion of the survey, thus there were 27 parent responses. Once the data was trimmed, descriptive statistics using frequencies and percentages from the parent data was used to represent percentages of male to female ratio, those who attended preschool, preschool conditions, crying at drop off and if comfort items were needed. Likert scale tables were created comparing what the parents and teachers reported concerning crying at drop off and comfort items needed. A summary of the open-ended results was conducted for qualitative data. After analysis of the data, the results revealed insights into the patterns observed, providing an understanding of the study’s outcomes. Results The results of this study include data from three different points of interest. The first section communicates the findings of the parent survey. The second section informs or gives data found in the teacher survey, and section three reports the findings of the same survey questions asked to both groups of participants. Section 1: Parent Survey Results The parent Qualtrics survey (see Appendix A) addressed the research question; what were the retrospective parent-reported technology use, self-regulation, preschool circumstances and educational activities of the 2023-2024 kindergarten students as toddlers in 2020-2021? The time spent on technology was divided into two groups: a less than one hour group and a more TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 23 than one hour group. Preschool data was separated by four preschool types and if COVID-19 health precautions were in effect. Reported Toddler Technology Usage The parent survey asked the parents to report their toddlers time per day on a computer, cellphone, electronic device, watching online or TV programs, playing games or accessing the internet for any reason during the COVID-19 quarantine. Table 2 shows the reported technology use per day. A survey of parents revealed varied screen time usage among children. A small group, 10/27 (37%) reported one hour or less screen time per day A notable portion, 17/27 (63%) of parents indicated that their children use screens for two or more hours daily. Table 2 Parent Reported Toddler Technology Use Per Day Hours per day Response Percentage Less than 1 hour 26% (7/27) 1 hour 11% (3/27) 2 hours 26% (7/27) 3 hours 30% (8/27) 4 or more hours 7% (2/27) Table 3 shows the frequency of parents using technology with their toddlers in each of three specific areas; education, entertainment or to calm/distract their child. The highest percentage of use in each category was 48% (13/27) of parents sometimes used tech for education with their toddler, 56% (15/27) sometimes used it to entertain, 41% (11/27) of parents used technology sometimes to calm or distract. Eleven percent (3/17) of parents reported never using technology for educational purposes, 4% (1/27) said they never used technology for TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 24 entertainment and 33% (9/27) of parents said they never used technology to calm or distract their child. Conversely, 0% reported using technology for education, entertainment or calming “all the time". Table 3 Technology Frequency with Toddlers for Education, Entertainment or to Calm/Distract Education Entertainment Calm/Distract Never 11% (3/27) 4% (1/27) 33% (9/27) Sometimes 48% (13/27) 56% (15/27) 41% (11/27) Most of the time 15% (4/27) 4% (1/27) 11% (3/27) Always 0% (0/27) 4% (1/27) 0% (0/27) When the parent reported screen time usage per day was stratified by less than or greater than one-hour, 10/27 or 37% of students had less than one hour of screen time per day while 63% had more than one hour a day (see table 4). When considering the distribution of how technology was used most in each group, the less than one-hour a day respondents (10 total) reported technology was used most in this order; 50% entertainment, 30% education, 10% to calm or distract their toddler, and 10% having no response. The greater than one-hour usage per day respondents (17 total) were in the same order with the percentages being quite similar; entertainment 52%, education 30%, to calm or distract 12%, with 6% having no response. All 17 (100%) responses from the group greater than one-hour stated they watched TV and 53% reported playing games on a technological device. Among the less than one-hour group of 10 respondents, 60% reported watching TV and 10% reported using a device to play games. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 25 Table 4 Parent reported Stratified use of technology £1 hour and >1 hours day Hours per day Response Percentage £1 hour a day 37% (10/27) >1 hours a day 63% (17/27) When considering the frequency of technology use in entertainment, education, and to calm their toddler from the less than one hour usage group, the results indicated 10% of the less than one-hour group stated they never used technology for entertainment, 70% said sometimes they did and 10% reporting half of the time. The same group of participants, 30% stated they never used technology for education, 60% stated using it sometimes, and 10% said most of the time. Of these same parents, 80% said they never used technology to calm, 10% said sometimes and 10% said half the time. Parents that reported using technology with their toddler more than an hour a day, 47% indicated sometimes using technology for entertainment, 41% half the time, and 6% all the time. When using tech for education, 41% of parents reported in both sometimes and half the time, while 18% used tech always to educate in the more than one-hour group. The reported frequency for using tech to calm their toddler 59% of the participants responded sometimes, 18% half the time, 18% most the time, and 6% reporting never using it to calm. Reported Preschool Attendance and COVID-19 Health Precautions The parent Qualtrics survey reported 74% of the children attended preschool in 2021 (table 5), leaving 7/27 or 26% not attending any preschool. The types of preschools reported included paying a fee for a private in-home preschool, homeschooling on their own, public preschool and online preschool). Parents paying a fee for their child to attend a private preschool TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 26 was 40% (8/20), 20% (4/20) of parents reported doing homeschool preschool on their own, 25% (5/20) reported going to a public preschool and 5% (1/20) reported doing an online preschool. There was 10% (2/20) that gave no response to this question. Table 5 shows each of these percentages based on the total number of students in the survey. Table 5 Distribution of the Types of Preschool Attendance Type of Preschool Response Percentage Private 30% (8/27) Homeschool 15% (4/27) Public 19% (5/27) Online 4% (1/27 Did not attend 26% (7/27) No response 7% (2/27 When asked if the preschool format included COVID-19 precautions (see table 6), 8/20 or 40% of parents reported that some form of precaution was still being taken 18 months later. One participant described these precautions in the preschool setting, “masks required, social distancing, when possible, temp checks on drop off.” Another parent reported their child “had to wear a mask, and social distance.” A significant portion of the participants, 60% (12/27), reported that no precautions were taken at the preschool their child attended. Another parent stated, “He started preschool in the fall of 2021. At this point in Utah, school looked pretty normal. No masks.” An additional parent responded, “It was towards the end of the crazy, so it (preschool) was pretty normal.” Those that did not respond to preschool conditions were 7/27 or 26%. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 27 Table 6 Preschool With/Without COVID-19 Precautions COVID Precautions Response Percentage With COVID Precautions 40% (8/20) Without COVID Precautions 60% (12/20) Section 2: Teacher Survey Results The teacher Qualtrics survey (see Appendix B) conveys the results of the research questions related to the teacher-reported emotional, self-regulation, attention, externalizing behavior, speech articulation, and fine motor pencil grip skills of students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class. As data was reviewed, the survey questions and responses were divided into three categories: 1) emotional self-regulation questions and responses of kindergarteners, 2) questions and responses relating to children being able to pay attention in academic situations and 3) questions/responses relating to speech articulation and fine motor pencil grip. Kindergartener Emotional Self-Regulation Emotional self-regulation refers to the capacity to manage one's actions, feelings, and interactions with others, even in the face of impulses and distractions. This skill evolves with age, requiring children to develop both internal and external self-regulation capabilities. The issue of managing impulses such as talking out of turn, demanding immediate attention or disrupting others' learning was assessed within the 2023-2024 class. The results showed that no participant reported this behavior never occurred. An equal number, 29%, expressed that these behaviors happened frequently and rarely, while a notable 35% indicated it occurred sometimes TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 28 and a very small portion stated it always happened. For a detailed breakdown, please refer to table 7. Table 7 Teacher responses to Managing Impulses Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 29% (5/17) Sometimes 35% (6/17) Frequently 29% (5/17) Always 6% (1/17) In comparing this emotional self-regulation behavior of managing impulses to other years, 18% of teachers reported it happened less/fewer than other years, 35% said it occurred at the same frequency, 14% stated it happened more frequently in the 2023-2024 class than other years (see table 8). Table 8 Frequency Comparison of 2023-2024 Students Emotional Self-Regulation to Other Years Manage Impulse Physical Anger or Unpredictable Cruelty or Aggression Explosive Meanness Behaviors Less/Fewer 18% (3/17) 6% (1/17) 0% (0/17) 6% (1/17) Same 35% (6/17) 29% (5/17) 35% (9/17) 53% (9/17) More 14% (8/17 65% (11/17) 65% (11/17) 41% (7/17) The second emotional self-regulation survey question asked how often students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class responded to conflict with externalizing behaviors such as TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 29 aggression, tempers, small fits, anger outbursts, throwing things and overall disruption of the class. One teacher reported that it “seems like behavioral issues have increased significantly. More physical aggression.” Another teacher was quoted as saying; “students (are) having a hard time transitioning from one thing to another resulting in tempers and small fits.” In the 20232024 class, 0% of the seventeen respondents said physical aggression never happened. A small sample comprising 12%, indicated externalizing behaviors rarely happened. More than half of the respondents, 53%, noted that anger or physical aggression sometimes occurred. Nearly onethird, 29%, reported it frequently happened, while 6% mentioned it always happened (see table 9). In comparing this emotional behavior of responding to conflict with physical anger or aggression behaviors to other years, 6% of teachers reported it happening less/fewer than other years, 29% stated responding with physical anger or aggression was the same frequency as other years, and 65% stated it happened more frequently in the 2023-2024 class than other years (see table 8 above). Table 9 Teacher Responses to Conflict with Physical Aggression Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 12% (2/17) Sometimes 53% (9/17) Frequently 29% (5/17) Always 6% (1/17) The third emotional survey question asked how often students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class responded to conflict with unpredictable behaviors such as angry outbursts or TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 30 explosive behaviors. In the 2023-2024 class, 0% of the participants reported that these behaviors never happened. A small group, representing 12%, indicated that this rarely happened. The majority, 59%, mentioned that it sometimes happened. Additionally, 24% stated that it frequently occurred, while a single participant, making up 6%, said unpredictable behaviors always happened (see table 10). When evaluating the emotional responses to conflict characterized by unpredictable behaviors, 0% of the teachers observed a decrease in such behaviors compared to previous years. A portion of the teachers, 35%, noted that the frequency of these behaviors remained the same as other years. Meanwhile, a larger group of teachers, 65%, reported an increase in unpredictable behaviors during the 2023-2024 school year. One teacher (6%) did not provide an answer to this question (see table 8 above). Table 10 Teacher Responses to Conflict with Unpredictable Behaviors Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 12% (2/17) Sometimes 59% (10/17) Frequently 24% (4/17) Always 6% (1/17) The fourth emotional regulation survey question asked how often students in the 20232024 kindergarten class responded to conflict with cruelty or meanness. According to the data, none of the teachers reported that responding to conflict with cruelty or meanness never occurred. A small percentage, 12%, indicated that this behavior rarely happened. A significant TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 31 majority, 71%, observed it sometimes occurred, while 12% noted it frequently happened, and 6% reported it always happened (see table 11). When comparing this behavior of responding to cruelty or meanness to previous years, one of the teachers mentioned that it occurred less frequently than in other years. Over half, 53%, stated the frequency was about the same, whereas 41% observed an increase in such behavior compared to other years. In comparing this emotional behavior of responding to conflict with cruelty or meanness to other years, one of the teachers reported it happening less/fewer than other years, 53% said same frequency, 41% stated it happened more frequently in the 2023-2024 class than other years (see table 8 above). Table 11 Teacher Responses to Conflict with Cruelty or Meanness Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 12% (2/17) Sometimes 71% (12/17) Frequently 12% (2/17) Always 6% (1/17) Academic Attention-related Question Results Academic-related behaviors are actions that assist students in maintaining focus during class. These behaviors encompass sitting on the rug, managing transitions smoothly, refocusing attention, and shifting focus from one task or activity to another efficiently. The first academic attention-related survey question asked how often students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class had restless or overactive behaviors at the rug. There were zero respondents that indicated this never happened. A small portion, 1 out of 17, mentioned that it rarely happened. Some TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 32 respondents, 4 out of 17, reported that it sometimes occurred. A majority, 10 out of 17, stated that it frequently happened. Lastly, 1 out of 17 said it always happened (see table 12). There was 1 out of 17 with no response to this question. Students were reported by one teacher as “having difficulty following rules and acting before thinking.” Another teacher commented that there is a “lack of impulse control and a desire for peer attention was increased. Students definitely had a harder time staying in their seat or sitting at the carpet than they did the year before.” Table 12 Teacher Reported Restlessness or Overactive Behaviors at the Rug Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 6% (1/17) Sometimes 24% (4/17) Frequently 59% (10/17) Always 6% (1/17) No Response 6% (1/17) In comparing this attention behavior of restlessness or overactive behaviors at the rug to other years, 6% of teachers reported it happened less/fewer than other years, 18 % said it was the same frequency, 76% stated it was more frequent in the 2023-2024 class than other years (see table 13). TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 33 Table 13 Frequency Comparison of 2023-2024 Academic Attention-Related Behaviors to Other Years Restless/overactive Inattentiveness Refocusing in a Inability to shift Behaviors at rug during 15-minute activities transitions lesson 6% (1/17) 0% 6% 0% Same 18% 18% (3/17) 35% 29% More 76% 82% 59% 71% Less/Fewer The second academic attention-related survey question asked how often students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class were inattentive, fidgety or distracted during transitions. There were 0% of the teachers who reported that inattentive, fidgety, or distracted behavior during transitions never happened in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class. Rare occurrences were also not observed by any teachers. Only one teacher, representing 6%, noted that it sometimes happened. Most teachers, accounting for 76%, indicated it frequently occurred, while 18% observed it always happened (see table 14). Table 14 Teacher Reported Academic Inattentiveness during Transitions Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 6% (1/17) Sometimes 6% (1/17) Frequently 76% (13/17) Always 18% (3/17) TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 34 In evaluating the attention behaviors of inattentiveness, fidgetiness, or distractibility during transitions compared to previous years, none of the teachers indicated that these behaviors occurred less frequently than in other years. A small group of teachers, 3 out of 17 or 18% observed the same frequency of these behaviors, while the majority 82% noted that they were more common in the 2023-2024 class than in previous years (see table 13 above). The third academic attention-related survey question asked how often students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class had to be refocused in a 15-minute lesson. Short attention span, need for redirection, as well as fidgets, toys, or visuals were reported to be needed to keep students focused. One teacher stated, “(the) attention span seemed shorter overall.” Another teacher declared “(I) had to redirect students frequently. Hard to keep them focus(ed).” In relation to 2023-2024 kindergarten students' attention span issues a teacher also responded that “I did need to build the functional endurance capacity,” meaning that children had to be taught how to pay attention. None of the teachers reported that refocusing never or rarely happened in the 2023-2024 class. A couple of teachers, 2 out of 17, said it sometimes happened, 13 out of 17 teachers said they had to frequently return students' attention back to the 15-minute lesson and 2 out of 17 said needing to refocus in a 15-minute lesson always happened (see table 15). Table 15 Academic Refocusing in a 15 Minute Lesson Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 0% (0/17) Sometimes 12% (2/17) Frequently 76% (13/17) Always 12% (2/17) TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 35 When comparing the frequency of refocusing kindergarteners' attention in a 15-minute lesson to that of other years, 6% of teachers reported it happening less/fewer than other years, 35 % said it was the same frequency and 59% stated refocusing was needed more frequently in the 2023-2024 class than other years (see table 13 above). The fourth academic attention-related survey question asked about kindergarteners' inability to concentrate, pay attention or shift from one activity to another in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class. Not one of the 17 teachers said this never or rarely happened in the 20232024 class. Some respondents, accounting for 24%, indicated that it sometimes occurred. The majority, making up 59%, noted that this behavior frequently happened. A smaller group, comprising 12%, said it always occurred (see table 16). Table 16 Academic Inability to Shift Frequency Response Percentage Never 0% (0/17) Rarely 0% (0/17) Sometimes 24% (4/17) Frequently 59% (10/17) Always 18% (3/17) Zero percent of teachers reported the attention-related behavior of not being able to concentrate or pay attention while shifting to other activities happening less/fewer compared to other years, 29% said it was the same frequency, 71% stated that this behavior happened more frequently in the 2023-2024 class than other years (see table 13 above). TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 36 Speech Articulation and Fine Motor Pencil Grip Teachers were asked to report the number of students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten class needing speech or articulation support (see table 17) and if this was less than, the same as or more than other years (see table 18). A majority of teachers, 59%, indicated that fewer than five students required extra articulation support. Nearly 29% of teachers reported having between five to ten students needing additional help. A small percentage, 6%, noted that more than ten students needed extra support. In terms of comparison with previous years, 53% of teachers stated it was the same amount as other years, while 47% mentioned it was more than other years. Table 17 Speech Articulation and Fine Motor Pencil Grip Extra Support Speech Articulation Fine Motor Pencil Grip <5 Students 59% (10/17) 41% (7/17) 5-10 Students 29% (5/17) 35% (6/17) >10 Students 6% (1/17) 18% (3/17) Teachers were asked the number of students in the 2023-2024 kindergarten year struggled with incorrect pencil grip or exhibited unusual hand movements, such as swiping up when writing. They were also asked to compare if it was less than, the same as or more than other years. A portion, 41%, of teachers, stated they had fewer than five students with an incorrect pencil hold. Another group, accounting for 35%, reported having between five to ten students facing this issue. A smaller segment, 18% of teachers, indicated they had more than ten students encountering this challenge, while one teacher did not respond to the question (see table 17). When comparing the frequency of this issue to previous years, none of the teachers reported TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 37 a decrease. Instead, 59% believed the frequency remained the same, and 41% felt there was an increase in the number of students with this need compared to other years (see table 18). Table 18 Frequency Comparison of 2023-2024 Speech Articulation and Fine Motor Pencil Grip to Other Years Speech Support Grip Issues Less/Fewer 0% (0/17) 0% (0/17) Same 53% (9/17) 59% (10/17) More 47% (8/17) 41% (7/17) Parent and Teacher Survey Comparison The Qualtrics surveys conducted with both parents and teachers (refer to Appendix A and B) aimed to explore the following research question: Did children who were between 18-36 months old during the COVID-19 quarantine exhibit behaviors such as crying at drop-off or the need for a comfort item during their 2023-2024 kindergarten year? To synchronize the data collected from both surveys, parents of children who were 18-36 months during the COVID-19 quarantine were asked whether their child cried at kindergarten drop-off or required a comfort item at school. Additionally, kindergarten teachers were surveyed to determine whether the number of students crying at drop-off or requiring comfort item in the 2023-2024 school year was less than, same as, or more than previous years. Both teachers and parents reported on the duration of crying at drop-off and the duration of time a comfort item was needed. The parent survey asked parents to report if their child attended preschool, what type or preschool format they attended and if there were any COVID-19 precautions. Among the parent respondents (27), TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 38 seven stated their child did cry at drop-off. Of those seven parents, three reported that the crying continued for less than one month. Two reported their child cried for 1-3 months, while two more parents also reported that the crying lasted for more than three months (see table 19). Table 19 Parent Reported Duration of Crying and Need of a Comfort Item Crying Duration Comfort Item Duration <1 Month 11% (3/27) 4% (1/27) 1-3 Months 7% (2/27) 4% (1/27) >3 Months 7% (2/27) 4% (1/27) No Response 0% (0/27) 4% (1/27) In the survey conducted among teachers, 17 participants provided insights into the frequency of kindergarten students crying at the beginning of the kindergarten school year compared to previous years. A small portion, 6%, noted a decrease in the number of students crying compared to other years. More than half (53%) of the respondents indicated that the phenomenon of kindergarten students crying was similar to past years and 35% observed an increase in the number of students crying compared to other years (see table 20). Table 20 Comparison of 2023-2024 Teacher Reported Crying and Need of a Comfort Item to Other Years Crying Comfort Item Less/Fewer 6% (1/17) 18% (4/17) Same 53% (9/17) 41% (7/17) More 35% (6/17) 35% (6/17) TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 39 In response to inquiries about the duration of crying (see table 21), 71% of teachers indicated crying lasted for less than a month. Meanwhile, 18% of teachers observed crying lasting between 1 to 3 months, and 12% of teachers noted it continued for more than 3 months. Table 21 Teacher Reported Duration of Crying and Need of a Comfort Item Crying Duration Comfort Item Duration <1 month 71% (12/17) 53% (9/17) 1-3 Months 18% (3/17) 18% (3/17) >3 Months 12% (2/17) 12% (2/17) When asked if their child needed a comfort item 15% (4) parents reported their child needed a comfort item in the 2023-2024 kindergarten year. There was an equal distribution of the duration of this need in these four students; one reported it lasting less than 1 month, one reported it 1-3 months, one reported it greater than 3 months and one did not respond (see table 19 above). Teachers reported that 41% of the students used a comfort item at the same level as previous years, 35% used it more frequently, and 18% used it less frequently (see table 20 above). Regarding the duration of needing this comfort item, 53% of those seventeen children required it for less than one month, 18% needed it for 1-3 months, and 12% needed it for more than three months (See table 21 above). In this study, 20 out of 27 (74%) of the children went to preschool as described in table 5 of the parent results section. According to table 22 below, 18% of those children attending preschool cried at kindergarten drop-off. Among the children who did not attend preschool, 11% of them cried at drop-off. This leaves 56% of preschool attendees and 15% of those not attending preschool did not cry at kindergarten drop off. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 40 Table 22 Parent reported preschool/no preschool combined with cries/non-criers Criers Non-Criers Preschool 18% (5/27) 56% (15/27) No Preschool 11% (3/27) 15% (4/27 Overall, 30% or 8 out of 27 children cried when they went to kindergarten; five who went to preschool and three who did not attend preschool. When these eight parents were asked how often screens were used to calm or distract their toddler during an emotional moment one parent chose not to respond leaving 7 participants, 38% said they sometimes used screens to calm their child, 25% said they used screens half of the time and 13% said they used screens to calm or distract their toddler most of the time and 13% said they never used technology to calm their child (see table 23). This means that six out of the eight, 75% of criers at kindergarten drop off, did have screens used to be calmed as a toddler. Of these eight criers, five had more than 3 hours of screen time per day as toddlers. Of these children who cried at drop off and had more than one hour of screen time as toddlers, 2 out of 8 of them also needed a comfort item in kindergarten. However, when you look at the population of kids who did not cry at kindergarten, 11 out of 20, had three or more hours of screen time as well and only one needed a comfort item at school. Table 23 Parent Reported Toddler Technology Use of Technology to Calm Frequency Response Percentage No response 13% (1/8) Sometimes 38% (3/8) Half the Time 25% (2/8) TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 41 Most of the Time 13% (1/8) Never 13% (1/8) Discussion Parent Survey The retrospective use of technology (see table 2) utilized by parents to educate, entertain or calm toddlers equates to 37% of the children in this study staying within the World Health Organization (WHO; Tan et al., 2023) and American Academy of Pediatrics (APA; Radesky et al., 2023) recommended guidelines of one-hour or less and 63% being over these guidelines. This coordinates with the percentage of data use found in the Southeast Michigan, USA sampling of 35% recorded less than 2 hours a day (Radesky et al., 2020) as well as the Australian study showing electronic media use at one and a half hours a day (Cliff et al., 2018). The distribution of technology usage across all 27 participants was 52% for entertainment, 33% for education and 11% to calm or distract the toddler. Distributive technology usage was highest for entertainment. Danet et al. (2022) stated that APA recommendations are to limit media use for entertainment to one hour a day for this age group as media and other habits are shaped in these formative years according to Jean Piaget (Cherry, 2024). When separating the responses based on APA and WHO recommendations the less than one-hour group and the more than one-hour group both reported using technology most for entertainment, next education and last to calm. When considering the frequency each group used technology in each of these areas, the less than one-hour group reported 80% never used technology to calm and 10% sometimes using technology to calm whereas the more than one hour group 59% reported using technology to calm sometimes, and 18% half the time and 18% TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 42 most of the time. This data shows that those who exceed the WHO and APA recommendations tend to use technology to calm more than those who stay within the recommendations. When looking at the overall data of the parent survey, 63% of parents reported during the Covid-19 quarantine the time per day on a computer, cellphone, electronic device, watching programs, playing games or accessing the internet for any reason was two or more hours per day. This statistic is significant as it surpasses the recommendations set by reputable health organizations, such as the WHO and the APA. These organizations advocate for limiting screen time to one hour per day for young children to promote healthier developmental outcomes (Tan et al., 2023; Danet et al., 2022). Only 10% of the kindergarten students in this survey met the one-hour or less recommendation. The data gathered from the parent survey during the Covid-19 quarantine highlights a critical issue in early childhood development concerning screen time. Jean Piaget’s theory on cognitive development identifies the preoperational stage as crucial for development and typically spans ages 2 to 7 (Piaget, 1952). This stage is characterized by significant advancements in symbolic thought, including the ability to engage in pretend play, which is fundamental for developing imagination and understanding the world (Gill, 2024). In this study preschool attendance was categorized into four basic types; private preschool, home school preschool, public preschool or participated in an online preschool. Survey participants reported that 74% of their children attended preschool with 40% of these respondents enrolled in private preschool experience. At this time there were 26% that did not attend preschool at all. At age 18 to 36 months the children in this study were quarantined at home and preschools were shut down. This study investigated how these disruptions potentially affected their development. When the children were able to attend preschool in the fall of 2021, COVID-19 precautions were reported at 40% of the preschools while 60% said no COVID-19 TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 43 precautions were taken. Variations in early childhood preschool environments offer a unique context to examine and understand the impact of disrupted social interactions on child development. Teacher Survey Mostafavi (2022) affirms that the developmental stage between preschool and kindergarten is a time when children manifest challenging behaviors. In this study, teacher reported self-regulatory emotional struggles including poor emotional regulation, bigger emotions, perfectionism in high achievers, and apathy in others. Teachers stated that the 20232024 kindergarteners had “bigger emotions” and “came in having a lot harder time controlling their emotions.” Social difficulties described by teachers included “trouble sharing, difficulty making friends, and lack of interpersonal skills.” A significant 65% of teachers observed an increase in physical aggression among students during the 2023-2024 school year compared to previous years. This same percentage (65%) also noted that unpredictable behaviors, including angry or explosive outbursts, have become more common in kindergarten classrooms. Additionally, 53% of teachers reported instances of conflict being met with cruelty or meanness occurring with the same frequency as other years, while 41% of teachers indicating that these behaviors are happening more often than in other years. This tells us that there is an increase in cruelty or meanness, physical aggression and unpredictable behaviors to solve conflicts in kindergarten. According to Choe et al. (2022) self-regulatory skills can be taught through cognitive training, early childhood interventions, and coordinating curriculum for media devices that promote cognitive development. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 44 Teacher reported behaviors that affected a student’s academic performance in school included restlessness or overactive behaviors at the rug, inattentiveness during transitions, refocusing during a 15-minute lesson and ability to shift from one activity to another. One teacher reported “the students who are high achieving seem to struggle with emotional regulation as related to perfectionism. Academically low students seem to struggle with attention issues and emotional regulation.” In the 2023-2024 kindergarten class, 76% of teachers observed an increase in restless behaviors while sitting on the rug. Additionally, 82% of teachers stated that transitions in the classroom are marked by inattentiveness and distractions. A significant 75% of teachers reported that they often needed to redirect attention during a 15-minute lesson and this redirection is happening 59% more often than other years. Many educators noted difficulties in students' ability to smoothly shift from one activity to another, with this issue being 71% more prevalent than other years. Overall, these behaviors are seen as more common in the 2023-2024 cohort compared to past years, suggesting a trend that educators are keenly aware of and addressing in their teaching strategies. Teacher and Parent Survey Comparison Teachers observed that the frequency of students crying at drop-off was similar to previous years, with a possible slight increase. According to parents, 30% of students in this study cried at kindergarten drop-off. We lack data on past years’ parental reports to verify the teachers' observations or duration against the parents. Additionally, parents felt that it took longer to comfort and settle the children than the teachers indicated. Teachers reported seeing the frequency and duration of needing a comfort item as about the same as other years and it was typically resolved within one month. The parent data reported that only 15% of children needed a comfort item and there was an equal distribution for how long the item was needed. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 45 According to Radesky (2023), screen usage by children two years of age has been negatively correlated with self-regulation in children four years of age. The results of this study align with Radesky’s assertion as children were reported to have lower self-regulation skills with increased screen time. The data collected in this study suggests a potential link between extensive screen time as a toddler and increased emotional distress during school drop-offs. Cliff et al. (2018) reported that the use of technology to regulate a child’s emotional behavior decreases the opportunity for them to develop the skills needed to calm down by themselves. Of the eight children who cried at drop-off, five of them spent more than three hours a day on screens when they were toddlers and technology was used to calm six of these eight toddlers during an emotional moment, two of these eight children also needed a comfort item as they started kindergarten. However, the relationship is not definitive, as a significant portion, 55%, of non-crying children also had high screen time usage and did not need a comfort item. Additional unseen factors, such as age, personalities, parenting styles and individual differences contribute to these outcomes as well. Conclusion This study highlights significant trends in the use of technology among toddlers and its implications on early childhood development. The parent survey indicates that most toddlers exceed the WHO and APA recommendations for screen time usage, with technology primarily used for entertainment, education, and calming purposes. This overuse, particularly for calming, correlates with emotional challenges observed in kindergarten classrooms. The data from the parent survey emphasizes the need for awareness and possible intervention strategies to manage screen time effectively, ensuring a balance that aligns with developmental guidelines. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 46 The teacher survey reveals an increase in emotional and social challenges among kindergarteners, correlating with the increased screen time observed in the parent survey. Teachers report struggles with emotional regulation and social interactions, alongside a rise in behaviors such as physical aggression and inattentiveness. This data emphasizes the importance of developing targeted interventions and support strategies to develop emotional and social skills in young children. In conclusion, the comparison of teacher and parent surveys suggests a complex relationship between early technology use and subsequent developmental challenges. While there is not a direct causal link, the data indicates the need for caution and balanced technology use. Future research These findings can guide future research on the role of technology in early childhood education. For teachers, the data suggests opportunities to collaborate with parents to optimize the educational use of technology and to share best practices for technology-free engagement. For parents, continued research is essential to understanding and addressing the effects of technology on young children's development, ensuring they are equipped with the skills necessary for emotional regulation and social interaction in their formative years. In summary, the study highlights the role of technology in both parenting and education, providing a foundation for developing informed educational policies and practices that support child development. These insights can serve as a basis for conducting further research and implementing practical applications within educational environments. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 47 Limitations This study began as technology research project but ended as a COVID-19 study. There was not an avenue to show that technology was the only factor involved in the change of kindergarten behaviors. Due to the small sample size, and limited geographic spread, the results from this study cannot be generalizable. However, the results showcase the experiences of both the parents and teachers that participated in the study. Another limitation of this study is that it was conducted retrospectively, it could be challenging for teachers and parents to remember details from as much as three years ago. The final limitation for this study is that after data collection and analysis the researcher found a flaw in the design of the survey. It was noticed that as the parent data was being quantified, an option for no or zero technology should have been added. This self-developed survey was not tested for reliability or validity. TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 48 References Abdoli, M., Khoshgoftar, M., Jadidi, H., Daniali, S.S., Kelishadi, R. (2024). Screen time and child behavioral disorders during COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 15, 9-10. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.ijpvm_78_23 Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). 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Student Information: • Birthday: Month and Year (00/0000) • Gender: Click Male or Female 1. Did your first grader attend preschool? o My first grader did not attend preschool o Yes, my first grader attended preschool o If yes, please explain what this looked like during the COVID-19 shutdown, (i.e. at home, virtual, social distance required etc.) 2. On most weekdays, what activities did your toddler participate in during the COVID-19 quarantine? Please select all that apply: Educational Activities o Read o Puzzles o Access Educational Materials with a Technological Device Recreational Activities o Color or Draw o Imaginative Play TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION o Table/Card Games o Watch TV o Play Games on a Mobile Device Physical Activities o Outside Play o Blocks Other Activities: (please specify) 3. During the COVID-19 quarantine for which did your child use technology more? o for educational use o for recreational/entertainment use o to calm or distract your child 4. On most weekdays during the COVID-19 quarantine, how often was technology used for the following purposes with your toddler? Please indicate how frequently technology was used for each purpose by selecting the corresponding option number. o To calm or distract your toddler during an emotional meltdown 1. Never/None 2. Sometimes 3. About Half the Time 4. Most of the Time 5. Always o To entertain your toddler 1. Never/None 2. Sometimes 3. About Half the Time 4. Most of the Time 5. Always o For Educational use 1. Never/None 2. Sometimes 3. About Half the Time 54 TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 55 4. Most of the Time 5. Always 5. On most weekdays during the COVID-19 quarantine, approximately how much time per day did your toddler spend in front of a computer, cellphone, or other electronic device watching programs, playing games, or accessing the internet for any reason? o Less than 1 hour o 1 hour o 2 hours o 3 hours o 4 or more hours 6. At the beginning of your child's 2023-2024 kindergarten year did he/she cry when being dropped off? Yes/no o If yes, How long did crying at drop-off continue? o Less than one month o 1-3 months o More than 3 months 7. At the beginning of your child's 2023-2024 kindergarten year did he/she take a comfort item (e.g., blanket, stuffed animals) to school. Yes/no o If yes, How long did the need for this comfort item continue o Less than one month o 1-3 months o More than 3 months TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 56 Appendix B Kindergarten Teacher Survey This survey aims to gain your perspective as a teacher in relation to 2023-2024 kindergarten students’ abilities to self-regulate, articulate or use fine motor skills. This group of students would have been 18-36 months old during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021. 1. Teaching Experience o How many years have you been teaching kindergarten? o Did you teach kindergarten in the 2023-2024 school year? 2. Class Size o How many students were in your 2023-2024 class? o Was this number less than, more than, or equal to previous years? 3. At the beginning of the 2023-2024 kindergarten year, _____ students cried when parents dropped them off compared to previous years? § More § Fewer § Same number of o How long did crying at drop-off continue? § Less than a month § 1-3 months § More than 3 months o Was this duration shorter, longer, or the same as previous years? 4. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year __________ students sought out comfort items (e.g., blanket, stuffed animals) during the school day compared to previous years? § More § Fewer § Same number of o How long did the need for comfort items continue? § Less than a month § 1-3 months § More than 3 months o Was this duration shorter, longer, or the same as previous years? 5. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often did you return students' focus back to instruction during a typical 15-minute lesson? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Always TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 57 o Is this frequency more, less, or the same as previous years? 6. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often were students inattentive, easily distracted and fidgety during transitions? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Always o Is this frequency more, less, or the same as previous years? 7. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year was how often were students unable to concentrate, pay attention or shift from one activity to another? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Always o Is this frequency more, less, or the same as previous years? 8. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often were your students unable to hold still, exhibited overactive behaviors or restlessness while at the rug or desk? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Always o Is this frequency more, less, or the same as previous years? 9. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often did students respond to conflict with cruelty or meanness to others? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Always o Is this more, less, or the same as previous years? 10. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often did students respond to different opinions with angry outbursts or explosive or unpredictable behavior? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Always o Is this more, less, or the same as previous years? TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 58 11. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often did students respond to not getting their way with a temper tantrum or physical aggressiveness? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Sometimes o Is this more, less, or the same as previous years? 12. In the 2023-2024 kindergarten year how often did students manage impulses such as talking out of turn, demanding immediate attention, or disturbing other children? § Never § Rarely § Sometimes § Frequently § Often o Is this more, less, or the same as previous years? 13. Fine Motor Skills o In 2023-2024 kindergarten year how many students struggled with correct pencil grip or exhibited unusual hand movements, such as swiping up, when writing? No students Less than 5 students 5-10 students More than 10 students o Was this more, less, or the same as previous years? 14. How many students needed speech/articulation support in the 2023-2024? No students Less than 5 students 5-10 students More than 10 students o Was this more, less, or the same as previous years? Additional Comments o Describe any notable changes in social or emotional behavior observed in your 2023-2024 students in comparison to previous years. o Did you notice any changes in 2023-2024 kindergarten students' attention span compared to previous years? o Do you have any additional thoughts or comments regarding the 2023-2024 kindergarten year? TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 59 Appendix C Weber State University IRB Approval April 5th, 2025 Sara Gailey Lori Walters Graduate Studies in Education Re: Exempt - Initial - IRB-AY24-25-306 - Technology and Emotional Self-Regulation in Young Children Dear Dr. Gailey: The Weber State University Institutional Review Board has rendered the decision below for "Technology and Emotional Self-Regulation in Young Children." Decision: Approved Approval: April 5th, 2025 Expiration: April 4th, 2026 Selected Category: Category 2.(i). Research that only includes interactions involving educational tests (cognitive, diagnostic, aptitude, achievement), survey procedures, interview procedures, or observation of public behavior (including visual or auditory recording) if at least one of the following criteria is met: The information obtained is recorded by the investigator in such a manner that the identity of the human subjects cannot readily be ascertained, directly or through identifiers linked to the subjects; Subjects are considered adults, signatures/consent are required, and they may choose not to participate. Anonymity and confidentiality are addressed appropriately, and the type of information gathered could not "reasonably place the subjects at risk of criminal or civil liability or be damaging to the subjects' financial standing, employability, or reputation" (Code of Federal Regulations 45 CFR 46, Subpart D). You may proceed once you have permission from the IRB of the Education Agency in which TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION 60 you are conducting your study. You have one year to complete the study. Please remember that any anticipated changes to the project and approved procedures must be submitted to the IRB prior to implementation. Any unanticipated problems that arise during any stage of the project require a written report to the IRB and possible suspension of the project. If you have any questions please contact your review committee chair or irb@weber.edu. Sincerely, Wei Qiu, Ph.D. Chair, College of Education IRB Sub-committee Weber State Institutional Review Board April 22, 2025 Sara Gailey Lori Walters Graduate Studies in Education Re: MODIFICATION - IRB-AY24-25-306 - Technology and Emotional Self-Regulation in Young Children Dear Dr. Gailey: Weber State University Institutional Review Board has rendered the decision below for the study "Technology and Emotional Self-Regulation in Young Children." Decision: Approved Findings: Modification to the study poses no more than minimal risks to subjects. Sincerely, Wei Qiu, Ph.D. Chair, College of Education IRB Sub-committee Weber State University Institutional Review Board TECHNOLOGY AND SELF-REGULATION Appendix D School District Approval 61