Chinese Dual Language Immersion Teacher Challenges by Dian Du Ziqi Ling A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION with an emphasis in CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION WEBER STATE UNIVERSITY Ogden, Utah June 26, 2023 Approved Louise R. Moulding, Ph.D. Penée W. Stewart, Ph.D. Laukaupouli Pohahau (Jul 11, 2023 14:46 MDT) Laukaupouli Huiyumi Pohahau, M.Ed. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 2 Acknowledgments With the accomplishment of this project, we have reached the end of our master's degree. Standing at this point, we are glad that we did it. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the people who helped us. First of all, we would like to extend a special thanks to our Chair, Dr. Moulding. We are grateful that I chose the Moyes College of Education and that Dr. Moulding chose to be our thesis mentor. Thank you for being an outstanding professor on our academic journey. You made the classroom environment engaging and your teaching style was always inclusive, which made us happy to participate and ask questions. Your guidance, support, and teaching have been instrumental in the continued advancement of our project. As international students, it is not easy to study in a foreign country, and your care for us and support for our studies was certainly a warm fireplace on a long winter day. You were always very willing to support us in developing our paper, we discussed ideas for paper revisions, shared experiences and conducted research together, and you invited us to your home on Thanksgiving Day, all of these memories have become wonderful moments to look back on in our lifetime. Thank you for your dedication and service to your students, which inspires us to be responsible teachers to ourselves and our students. Second, we would like to thank the faculty members who participated in the study. We are grateful to our committee members, Dr. Stewart and Laukaupouli Huiyumi Pohahau, who gave us many constructive comments and suggestions for our study. We were also impressed by Dr. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 3 Stewart's conscientiousness, openness and enthusiasm during our interactions with her. Her ability to make complex topics understandable and resonant was remarkable, and Laukaupouli Huiyumi Pohahau allowed us to observe and learn in her Chinese immersion class, which gave us a better understanding of the research topic. Her enthusiasm for the topic was contagious and encouraged us to delve deeper into the topic and challenge ourselves. Collecting the surveys was the most difficult step in this study. We would like to thank Marty Chen and Xiaoli Li from the American Immersion Chinese Teacher Resource WeChat group for their selfless help in spreading the questionnaire. We appreciate all the participants who took part in the questionnaire, without their help, this paper would not have been possible. Ziqi: In addition, I would like to thank my best friends Qi Yan, Dehuai Yan and Zhiyu Zhou. Thank you for every moment in my life and your voiced and unvoiced support. Thank you for listening to my worries and giving me sincere advice. Your companionship, love and encouragement make me believe I can overcome any difficulties. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, Xin Liang & Zhiyun Ling, for your endless support and financial backing to make your child's dreams come true. You have worked tirelessly to accumulate funds so that I can have the opportunity to study abroad. I know that this is not just a financial commitment, but an investment in my future. Your sacrifices and efforts have allowed me to receive a quality education, broadened my horizons, and opened the door to greater opportunities. Thank you for your moral support. You have always provided me with encouragement and support, whether I was far away from home or in a foreign country. Your trust and encouragement have been my Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 4 motivation when I have faced challenges and difficulties. You have selflessly shared my joys and achievements, and you have been with me through the lonely moments. This has helped me to know that I always have a strong backing no matter where I am. Your teachings have made me wiser and more cautious. Thanks to your wisdom and experience, you have always taught me to be a person of integrity, talent and responsibility. I am forever grateful for all you have done for me and love you all. Dian Du: In addition, I would like to thank my best friends Junce Yang, Yuqi Yuan, and Qirui Liu for bringing me warmth and hope, and for the care and companionship I received during that time, which I will remember for the rest of my life. Finally, I would like to thank my parents Yanjuan Zhu & Dong Li. Thank you for raising me into an adult, providing me with a good education and the deepest trust. Your meticulous care and care for me, your unrequited dedication and giving, your encouragement when I encounter difficulties, have given me the courage to move forward bravely. The kindness of nurturing cannot be expressed in words, only by continuing to work hard and constantly break through oneself to become your pride. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 5 Abstract In the United States, dual immersion courses have developed rapidly. Many schools offer Chinese dual immersion courses. However, the challenges faced by Chinese immersion teachers working in the United States have not diminished at all. This means that schools and school districts should pay more attention to the needs of Chinese immersion teachers and provide them with assistance and support. The purpose of this study is to investigate the experiences of Chinese DLI teachers in American schools, to determine whether their experiences match existing literature, and to provide recommendations to local school districts on how best to support Chinese DLI teachers. The method used in our study is a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis. This study invited 31 teachers from different educational backgrounds and experiences who are currently working in Chinese immersion programs in schools in the United States to answer online questionnaires. Our research results show that the main challenges faced by teachers of Chinese immersion projects are: (1) classroom management issues caused by cultural differences; (2) Communication issues between teachers, students, and parents caused by cultural differences. (3) Insufficient training and resources; (4) Language barriers; (5) Lack of motivation for students to continue learning Chinese after graduation; (6) The school has set too many teaching goals for teachers. The findings agree with the conclusion drawn by previous scholars that "teachers of Chinese immersive projects did not receive timely and effective responses to the challenges they encountered in their early teaching careers. However, the overloaded teaching objectives and insufficient motivation for students to continue learning Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Chinese after the end of the project found in this study are two phenomena that have not been mentioned in previous literature. This article investigates the reasons for these challenges and proposes practical suggestions to overcome them in the end. Keywords: Chinese dual language immersion program, Chinese language teacher, Cultural Differences 6 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 7 Table of Contents Literature Review .......................................................................................................................... 13 Dual Language Immersion ................................................................................................ 13 Differences between China and the United States Education ........................................... 14 Challenges Faced by Chinese Teachers in American Schools .......................................... 17 Methods of Helping Dual Language Teachers .................................................................. 19 Purpose .......................................................................................................................................... 20 Method ...........................................................................................................................................21 Participants ........................................................................................................................ 21 Instrument ..........................................................................................................................27 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 32 Teachers' Professional Development and Experience with DLI Programs ....................... 33 Challenges Faced by Chinese Immersion Teachers .......................................................... 42 DLI Program Effectiveness and Evaluation ...................................................................... 55 Supports and Resources Teachers Need ............................................................................ 60 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 66 Cultural Differences Are the Biggest Problem .................................................................. 66 Lack of Internal and External Support Is One of the Challenges ......................................73 Lack of Teaching Resource Support .......................................................... 73 Lack of External Resource Support ........................................................... 74 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 8 Lack of Student Motivation is One of the Challenges ...................................................... 76 Lack of Chinese Language Environment for Students ...............................76 Lack of Motivation for Students to Learn Chinese ....................................77 Lack of Learning Resources and Opportunities for Students ....................77 Challenges of Language Immersion Programs ................................................................. 78 Most Students Hardly Reach a High Level in Chinese ..............................78 DLI Program Lacks Quality Teachers .......................................................79 Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................80 Suggestions ........................................................................................................................80 Limitation and Suggestions for Future Research .............................................................. 83 References ..................................................................................................................................... 84 Appendix A: Questionnaire ........................................................................................................... 90 Appendix B: Informed Consent .................................................................................................... 94 Appendix C: Participant Information: Educational and Teaching Background ............................ 97 Appendix D: Responses to Open-ended Questions .......................................................................99 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 9 List of Tables Table 1: Participants' Teaching Context ........................................................................................23 Table 2: Teachers’ Areas of Specialization ....................................................................................24 Table 3: Participants’ Prior Teaching Experience ......................................................................... 25 Table 4: Participants’ Prior Teaching Content Area ...................................................................... 26 Table 5: Participants Current Teaching Assignment Grade Levels ............................................... 26 Table 6: Participant’s Years of Teaching Experience .................................................................... 27 Table 7: Questionnaire Design ...................................................................................................... 28 Table 8: Support for Special Education and Challenges ............................................................... 34 Table 9: Sources of Support by Participant ...................................................................................36 Table 10: Participant Identified Needs to Overcome Challenges ................................................. 37 Table 11: Participant’s Preference for Professional Development Frequency .............................. 38 Table 12: Frequency of Each Professional Development Topic ................................................... 40 Table 13: Professional Development Topic by Participant ........................................................... 41 Table 14: Challenges Faced as a Chinese Immersion Teacher ......................................................43 Table 15: Cultural Sensitivity and Awareness: Impact of Cultural Differences on Teaching Experiences ................................................................................................................................... 50 Table 16: Ways to Involve Parents and Family Members in the DLI Program .............................55 Table 17: Considerations for Evaluating Program Effectiveness ..................................................60 Table 18: Participants’ Preferred Professional Development Topics ............................................ 61 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 10 Table 19: Supports Identified by Participants to Help Students ....................................................64 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 11 Chinese Dual Language Immersion Teacher Challenges Language immersion programs are growing rapidly in the United States. Most dual language immersion programs include California, Texas, New York, Utah, and North Carolina (Roberts, 2021). Simply put, dual language instruction is an educational program offered in two languages designed to promote bilingualism among students while teachers use the primary or native language as a bridge to help students learn the dominant language (Lessow-Hurley, 2013). Many believe that mastery of more than one language is an educational and social goal in many countries around the world and throughout history (Kinberg, 2001). In Utah elementary schools, dual language immersion (DLI) is a common mode of instruction (Steele et al., 2019). Chinese and other languages are taught in the immersion program, and students who participate in the dual immersion programs learn grade level content in the target languages (Steele et al., 2019). With the growing trend of globalization, Chinese is becoming an important and popular language in the world, and an increasing number of teachers are teaching it across national borders. In many countries, including the United States, more and more public schools are introducing Chinese into their school curriculum (Asia Society, 2011). The increase in language programs in Chinese may be accompanied by a shortage of talented Chinese teachers, and to address this, many native Chinese speakers with diverse educational backgrounds and limited teaching experience are being recruited to teach k-12 in the United States after receiving short-term cultural and pedagogical instruction (Liao et al., 2017). Teachers who teach in cross-cultural settings play a critical role in fostering students' appreciation of cultural diversity, Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 12 but these Chinese teachers often experience significant challenges early in their teaching careers. Failure to effectively address these challenges in a timely manner not only makes the beginning and developmental stages of cross-cultural teaching very difficult and hinders the professional development of teachers of Chinese as a foreign language, but also affects the quality of Chinese language education (Liao et al., 2017). Currently, the development of DLI programs in the United States is facing two large challenges: a lack of professional teacher education programs designed for immersion language teachers, and school lacks teacher candidates with immersion teaching qualification (Chen & Li, 2022). Native language teachers are hired because of their linguistic and cultural knowledge. The prerequisites for qualified bilingual immersion teachers are a background in education and native or near-native bilingual proficiency in the target language (Met & Lorenz, 1997). Due to a lack of academically qualified and competent immersion teacher candidates, immersion programs have modified their hiring criteria and give preference to teachers with strong language skills (Veilleux & Bournot-Trites, 2005). Many times, these teachers are coming to the United States for the first time and do not necessarily understand the norms of the American educational system or the American culture, or the differences in the theoretical foundations of education in the United States and China. Teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning may be heavily influenced by culturally shared experiences and values. These are critical to understanding teaching and learning around the world (Correa et al., 2008). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 13 Literature Review Dual Language Immersion Dual language immersion programs can be implemented through a temporal division of language instruction "based on content area, class period, instructor, day, week, unit, or semester" (Acosta et al., 2019, p. 4). Most DLI programs in the United States tend to be transitional in nature, as it is unrealistic to expect all children to master a second language within a few years (Lessow-Hurley, 2013). As a result, DLI instruction is divided into multiple forms and models, depending on the goals of the program and the population served. The diversity of DLI program models becomes apparent through the different features used to deliver language and content instructions (Acosta et al., 2019). Based on existing DLI research, Utah has developed a 50-50 instructional model, which operates in the context of language instruction divided equally by content area (Acosta et al., 2019). As previously mentioned, under this model, students receive 50% instruction in English, 50% instruction in target language, such as Mandarin Chinese. The purpose of bilingual instruction is for students to demonstrate literacy in both languages of instruction, which will enable them to develop bilingual skills and become fully bilingual (Lessow-Hurley, 2013). DLI programs promote the integration of native English speakers and target language speakers as a tool that facilitates students to become bilingual and promotes bicultural co-development (Lessow-Hurley, 2013). The number of dual language immersion programs in the U.S. is still growing, with Spanish still the preferred language, but Mandarin is increasingly popular today even in places Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 14 that historically have not had large Chinese populations to date, such as Salt Lake City, Utah, and Scottsdale, Arizona. As of July 2021, there are 886 bilingual programs in the United States (Center for Applied Linguistics, as cited in Chung, 2021). In the United States, it is often a trend for parents whose children are still in school to have their children learn more than one language. Each year, parents seeking such opportunities for their children compete to enroll their children in dual language programs (Chung, 2021). From a school standpoint, the best way to support students is to create a supportive learning environment with a dual language classroom, whether the child's parents speak the language of immersion or not (Chung, 2021). Differences between China and the United States Education There are relatively few macro studies on the differences between the Chinese and American educational systems. Looking at the dimension of schools of educational thought, American educational thought is mainly focused on social efficacy, scientism, progressivism, elementalism, eternalism, structuralism, and constructivism (Chen & Zhang, 2018). The Chinese philosophy of education includes those theories that are consistent with Confucian values, of which there are elements of humanism, pragmatism, behaviorism, and others (Corcoran, 2014). Such a theoretical foundation, even though it clearly has its origins in the West, still does not detract from serving as a starting point for Chinese educational theory (Corcoran, 2014). Confucius, the founder of the Confucian school, is considered to be the creator and preserver of Chinese civilization, indicating that Confucius still has a significant influence on contemporary cultural values and variables. The Confucian philosophy of education reflects, to some extent, Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 15 Confucius' strong emphasis on moral education, that is, the needs of others over the needs of individuals and the obligation to treat others in a humane manner. The implications for the educational environment are that people should always seek knowledge and learn to become a better person who can learn self-control, virtue, and consistent moral behavior through individual and collective efforts (Corcoran, 2014). The differences between the two countries are also reflected in educational research (Zhao et al., 2008). The US has inherited much of the Western epistemological tradition of viewing the world analytically, typically characterized by empirical investigation. The Chinese tradition is rooted in the Confucian tradition of introspection, i.e., knowing through reflection and wisdom. It prefers a holistic and dialectical approach that views the world as a complex whole with a full set of relationships, emphasizing the meaning and value of the whole rather than its components (Zhao et al., 2008). Scholars have found that China is pursuing exactly what the United States is eager to abandon – an education that respects individual talent, supports divergent thinking, tolerates bias, and encourages innovation; a system in which the government does not dictate what students learn or how teachers teach; a culture that does not evaluate schools, teachers, or children based solely on government-determined test scores in a handful of subjects (Zhao, 2009). In addition, more and more states and the federal government in the United States have begun to dictate what students should learn, when they should learn it, and how they should pass state-mandated curriculum standards, high school exit exams, and national exams, as well as reward and measure schools and teachers based on test scores to make education more centralized and standardized (Zhao, 2009). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 16 In a case study of six full-time Chinese immersion teachers from four different Chinese immersion programs in one US state, researchers found that Chinese immersion teachers need more social-emotional learning and preparation for diversity, equity, and inclusion (Chen et al., 2022). This study reflects two differences between Chinese and American education. First, teaching styles are different. Teachers who teach in China are eager to teach and do not spend much time caring to understand the social and emotional developmental needs of their students. The United States, on the other hand, requires teachers to devote more time to learning the basics of building relationships with students and preparing them mentally, rather than rushing to teach. Secondly, the U.S. requires teachers to have the theory and practice of educational philosophy and psychology. China, on the other hand, has no such requirements for teachers, so many Chinese teachers have limited knowledge and experience in working with students with special needs. The interview was divided into two parts. The first part was to gather information about the participants' professional and educational backgrounds. The second part was to collect information about the participants' teaching experiences, opinions, and preparation for their programs (Chen et al., 2022). All participants indicated that the theories and practices related to educational philosophy and educational psychology that they received in the United States, which is different from China, contributed to their Chinese immersion efforts in different ways, so it was critical that Chinese immersion teachers receive relevant preparation (Chen et al., 2022). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 17 Challenges Faced by Chinese Teachers in American Schools The new educational and cultural system can be very challenging for new Chinese teachers working in American schools. First, they need to adapt to different education systems. According to Xu's 2012 qualitative case study of seven Chinese teachers with Chinese teaching experience who taught non-native Chinese students in US classrooms, Chinese teachers working in the US encountered the following challenges: language barriers, different perceptions and expectations of roles, different teaching methods and styles, classroom management, and inclusion of students with special needs (Xu, 2012). In addition, they also need to face classroom discipline difficulties caused by cultural differences and conflicts with parents caused by lack of understanding of mainstream American culture (Lee, 2015). Teachers spend a lot of time dealing with children's behavioral and emotional problems because of the vastly different expectations for educating and guiding children in the United States compared to China. Teachers expressed feelings of helplessness and disbelief (Chen et al., 2017). Due to the difference in the teaching culture in the United States, compared with the teaching culture in China, Chinese teachers working in the United States need to take on more obstacles such as classroom management responsibilities, accepting students with disabilities, communicating with parents, and gaining access to U.S. teaching methods, classroom management skills, and special education knowledge and skills (Chen et al., 2022; Lee, 2015; Xu, 2012). In a study published in the Journal of Language, Identity & Education, researchers examined the experiences of Chinese DLI teachers working in the United States (Jin & Zhang, Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 18 2018). The study found that Chinese DLI teachers faced challenges related to language proficiency, cultural differences, and differences in teaching styles and practices. These challenges affected their classroom management skills and ability to effectively communicate with parents and students (Jin & Zhang, 2018). In the study by Ma (2020), the researcher used a mixed-methods approach to investigate the challenges faced by non-native speakers of Chinese as immersion teachers in the United States. The questionnaire was used as one of the data collection methods. The study found that the challenges facing non-native speakers of Chinese as immersion teachers included language barriers, cultural differences, and differences in teaching methods and expectations. Lindholm-Leary and Borsato (2018) conducted a systematic review of the research on dual-language immersion programs. One of the data collection methods used in the studies reviewed was a questionnaire. The review found that the challenges faced by immersion teachers included the need for more professional development, the need for more instructional resources, and the need for better communication with parents. Li (2015) investigated Chinese immersion teachers' perceived efficacy of classroom management strategies. The data was collected through a questionnaire. The study found that immersion teachers faced challenges in classroom management due to cultural differences, language barriers, and a lack of support from school administrators. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 19 Methods of Helping Dual Language Teachers Most Chinese language teachers are native speakers who were educated in Chinese-speaking countries. These teachers tend to be more traditional in their teaching methods and have difficulty adapting to the American style of instructing children and implementing curriculum (Tedick, 2013). As a result, most teachers believe they need more professional training (Chen et al., 2017). However, there has been a lack of teacher training programs for immersion teachers in the United States (Chen et al., 2022). Due to inadequate funding budgets, it is difficult for schools to provide professional development for these teachers (Chen et al., 2017). To better support teachers in their immersion efforts, schools can take the following steps. First, schools can provide immersion teacher candidates with opportunities for in-school internships. During internships, teacher candidates gain cross-cultural communication skills that help them work effectively with parents, colleagues, and the community throughout their careers (Chen et al., 2022) Second, schools can provide opportunities for incoming immersion teachers to learn from other immersion program teachers in their schools (Chen et al., 2017). Schools can provide peer coaching and team meetings and allow experienced and effective practitioners to share their expertise (Chen et al., 2017; Met et al., 1998). In addition, schools can recommend teachers further study at universities in the United States that offer programs that provide knowledge in areas such as instructional practices, classroom management, language immersion pedagogy, and content knowledge instruction (Chen et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2022). By studying Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 20 at a university, immersion teachers are more likely to understand and adapt to curriculum and instruction in an immersion environment and have the opportunity to gain practical experience in the field (Chen et al., 2022). Purpose The focus of this study was on native speakers from China teaching Chinese to speakers of other languages in the US. The purpose of this study was to examine the experiences of Chinese DLI teachers in local schools to determine if their experiences match that of the existing literature and to make recommendations to the local school district(s) about how best to support native language teachers. This project was developed according to the following three objectives: 1. To raise awareness about the challenges that Chinese dual language immersion (DLI) teachers face when working in the United States. By highlighting these challenges, the paper aims to help educators, policymakers, and other stakeholders better understand the experiences of Chinese DLI teachers and how they can be supported in their work. 2. To identify specific areas of challenge that Chinese DLI teachers face, such as classroom management, communication with parents, and special education knowledge and skills. This paper aims to provide a more detailed and nuanced understanding of the difficulties faced by Chinese DLI teachers. 3. To provide recommendations for how Chinese DLI teachers can be better supported in their work, such as through targeted professional development programs and increased cultural and linguistic support. By offering concrete recommendations, the paper aims to Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 21 help address the challenges faced by Chinese DLI teachers and improve their experiences and effectiveness as educators in the United States. Method The purpose of this project was to identify the challenges faced by Chinese dual language immersion teachers in the United States and to determine the specific help they need from schools. To achieve this, a questionnaire was used to gather information from immersion language teachers in Utah and other states in the United States. Overall, this study aimed to provide valuable insights into the challenges faced by Chinese dual language immersion teachers in the United States. The information gathered from this study will help schools develop effective strategies to support immersion language teachers and improve the overall quality of dual language immersion programs in the United States. Participants The participants of this study were Chinese immersion language teachers from different educational backgrounds and experiences who were currently teaching in the United States. The link for filling out the questionnaire (Appendix A) was distributed through WeChat, a cross-platform communication tool in China. The questionnaire was sent to the "American Chinese Immersion Teachers Resource Group" on WeChat, which had 252 Chinese immersion teachers who are working or have worked in the United States. To ensure a diverse sample, teachers from different regions in the United States were targeted and were encouraged to fill out the questionnaire. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 22 After a two-week collection period, we had received responses from 31 teachers on Qualtrics who had completed the survey and agreed to the Informed Consent (Appendix B). Of the 31 survey respondents, 22 were female and 9 were male. Of these, 27 participants, or 87% of the sample size (N=31), are working in the U.S. They were located in California, Utah, Michigan, Nevada, Illinois, Maryland, Louisiana, Missouri, and Idaho. In addition, two participants are currently working in Dubai and two currently work in Shanghai and Shaanxi, China. All four overseas participants have previous immersion teaching experience in Utah, USA. Table 1 provides information about the participants' teaching context. In order to protect the privacy of the participants, the question on the teachers' educational background was an optional fill-in. Of the 18 participants who provided their educational background, 15 had a master's degree, 2 had a bachelor's degree, and one had only filled in the major. In terms of the school that they graduated from, 12 graduated with an education degree from the United States, four graduated with an education degree from China, and one graduated with an education degree from Japan. From the data of teaching duration of these 31 participants until 2023, 14 (45%) had more than 10 years of experience, 9 (29%) had 4-6 years of teaching experience, 6 (19%) had 7-9 years of teaching experience, and 2 (6%) had 1-3 years of teaching experience. In addition to this, 25 participants had teaching experience before becoming Chinese DLI teachers. Appendix C shows the information of participants' educational and teaching backgrounds. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 23 Table 1 Participants' Teaching Context Participant ID P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 P11 P12 P13 P14 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 P20 P21 P22 P23 P24 P25 P26 P27 P28 P29 P30 P31 Gender F F F F F M F F F M M F F F F F F F F M M F F F F M F M M F M School Location California Utah Utah Utah Michigan Dubai Dubai California Utah Utah Nevada Utah Utah Illinois Utah Shaanxi Maryland Louisiana Maryland Shanghai Utah Missouri California California Utah Idaho Utah Utah Utah California Utah Teaching Context (2023) Country U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. The United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. China U.S. U.S. U.S. China U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Grade Level 1 8 9-12 8-9 Pre 7-8 9 6-8 10 6-7 10 K-5 K-5 K-8 6 7-9 Pre 2 6-8 1-5 k-5 1 6-8 3 3 6-8 2-3 9-12 10-12 2 2 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 24 Questions 1-5 gathered basic demographic information. Teachers' personal backgrounds may influence certain aspects of their perceptions and perceptions of challenges. All questions were required, except for Question 1-Educational Background, which was optional. For question 1, 18 (58%) teachers provided their educational background. Regarding the education level of the Chinese Immersion teachers, most teachers (83%) of the teachers had a master's degree and 3 (17%) teachers had a bachelor's degree. More importantly, the majority of teachers (n=17) graduated with a major related to education, and one teacher had a major field of study in esthetics (Table 2). Table 2 Teachers’ Areas of Specialization Area Early Childhood Education International Chinese Education Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Language Teaching Chinese as a Second Language Chinese Education World Language in Secondary Education Esthetics Art education Arts in Teaching Math Elementary Education Language Pedagogy Total Number 2 1 2 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 18 Question 2 asked about the teachers' teaching experience. More than half teachers (81%) had teaching experience before they became Chinese immersion teachers, while only a small Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 25 group of teachers (19%) had no teaching experience before becoming Chinese immersion teachers. Notably, of the teachers with previous teaching experience, almost half of them (n=12) had experience teaching in China. Five of these 12 teachers had taught Chinese at universities in China, and the longest years of teaching experience was 18 years. Some of the teachers (n=6) had experience as Chinese teachers in Thailand before becoming Chinese immersion teachers, with an average of 1.83 years of teaching experience. The participants had a variety of teaching areas in their early teaching experience. P24 was a vice professor of Chinese at Jilin University Zhuhai College for five years. Other teachers have been English teachers, art teachers, or math teachers. Table 3 shows the countries where participants taught in their early teaching experiences, and Table 4 shows the teaching areas of these participants before they became Chinese immersion teachers. Table 3 Participants’ Prior Teaching Experience Country China Thailand America Philippines, Korea Country unknown No previous teaching experiences Total n 12 6 4 1 2 6 31 % 38.71 19.35 12.90 3.23 6.45 19.35 100.00 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 26 Table 4 Participants’ Prior Teaching Content Area Country Chinese English Chinese and English Math Art Theater Teaching Area Unknown No teaching experience Total n 10 4 1 1 1 1 7 6 31 % 32.26 12.90 3.23 3.23 3.23 3.23 22.58 19.35 100 Question 3 is the grade level of teaching, and the majority of Chinese immersion teachers (67.74%) work in elementary or secondary schools. In addition, two participants chose the OTHER option. One of the participants is not currently a teacher; she is pursuing a master's degree. However, before that, she had worked as an immersion teacher in elementary schools in Utah. The other participant is currently teaching ninth grade in high school in the UAE. Please see Table 5 for the grade levels the participant currently teaches. Table 5 Participants Current Teaching Assignment Grade Levels Field Kindergarten Elementary (K-5) Middle School (6-8) High School (9-12) K-8 Other Total Number 2 11 10 5 1 2 31 % 6.45 35.48 32.26 16.13 3.23 6.45 100.00 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 27 Question 4 asked about the teaching experience of the participants. The survey results showed that nearly one-third teachers(n=11) had 1-5 years of teaching experience, a small portion of teachers (n=6) had 7-9 years of experience, and majority of senior teachers (n=14) had more than 10 years of experience (Table 6). Novice teachers accounted for 35.48%, experienced teachers accounted for 19.35%, and veteran teachers accounted for 45%. Question 5 is the language in which the participant teaches. By the data, almost all Chinese immersion teachers (83.87%) teach only Chinese, and 5 (16.31%) teach Chinese and English. Table 6 Participant’s Years of Teaching Experience Level (years) Novice (1-6) Experienced (7-9) Veteran (>10) Total n % 11 6 14 31 35.48 19.35 45.16 100.00 Instrument The instrument used in this study was a questionnaire that included questions based on the literature review and other similar studies. The questions were comprehensive and inclusive of Chinese language immersion teachers with different educational backgrounds and experiences. The questionnaire was designed to collect data on the specific challenges that immersion language teachers face in the United States and the help they need from schools. It focused on challenges to transitioning to the US school system, parental expectations, the responsibility of teachers, the relationship between parents and teachers, teachers' educational background and Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 28 teaching experience. The survey included questions that pertain to the types of support that teachers require for teaching, challenges faced in communicating with parents, conflicts in the classroom resulting from cultural differences, and assistance needed from the school. See Appendix A. We developed and administered a teacher questionnaire containing a total of 26 questions (Table 7). This study utilized Qualtrics' online survey as a data collection tool to collect their perceptions on key topics through multiple-choice and open-ended questions. Based on the research objectives for this study, the content of the questionnaire was divided into five aspects: DLI teachers' personal background, teachers' professional development and experience with DLI programs, challenges of Chinese immersion teachers, DLI program effectiveness and evaluation, and the support and resources teachers need. Table 7 Questionnaire Design Question Topics of Survey DLI teachers' personal background (Question 1-5) Question Content Q1 Education, major and graduation school Q2 Previous teaching experience Q3 Current teaching level Q4 How many years of teaching experience Q5 Languages taught Type of Questions Open-ended (Optional fill-in) Open-ended Multiple choice (Allow one answer, text entry to supplement) Multiple choice (Allow one answer) Multiple choice (Allow one answer, text entry to supplement) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Question Topics of Survey Question Content Q6 Teaching training received or desired in Chinese DLI program Teachers' professional development and experience with DLI programs (Question 6, 7, 11-15 and 17) Challenges they face as Chinese immersion teachers (Question 8-10 and 18, 22, 23) 29 Type of Questions Multiple choice (Allow one answer, text entry to supplement) Q7 Level of familiarity with special Rating scale education laws and procedures Multiple choice (Allow one Q11 Whether you receive answer, text entry to assistance or training supplement) Multiple choice (Allow multiple Q12 What assistance you need to answer, text entry to overcome challenges supplement) Q13 Effectiveness of receiving Rating scale assistance or training Q14 Whether you are interested in Multiple choice (Allow one participating in a professional answer) development program Q15 What kind of professional development or training would you like to receive to improve your Open-ended teaching in Chinese immersion programs? Q17 Frequency of participation in Multiple choice (Allow one professional development training programs specifically designed for answer, text entry to Chinese immersion teachers in the supplement) US Q8 Challenges of transitioning to Rating scale the U.S. school system Multiple choice (Allow multiple Q9 Challenges faced as a Chinese answer, text entry to immersion teacher supplement) Q10 Why do you think these are challenges and how have they been Open-ended addressed? Q18 Cultural sensitivity and Multiple choice (Allow multiple awareness: impact of cultural answer, text entry to differences on teachers' teaching supplement) experiences Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Q22 Challenges in classroom management and teaching strategies: student behavior and discipline issues Q23 Challenges in classroom management and teaching strategies: ways to involve parents and family members in the DLI program Q19 Evaluation of the effectiveness of Chinese immersion programs DLI program effectiveness Q20 Feedback on the program and evaluation Q21 Considerations for evaluating (Question 19-21) program effectiveness Supports and resources teachers need (Question 16, 24-26) Q16 What areas of professional development training would like to receive Q24 Supports teachers need from their schools or school districts 30 Open-ended Multiple choice (Allow multiple answer, text entry to supplement) Rating scale Open-ended Multiple choice (Allow multiple answer, text entry to supplement) Multiple choice (Allow multiple answer, text entry to supplement) Open-ended Q25 Additional support for students or English learners Multiple choice (Allow multiple answer, text entry to supplement) Q26 Suggestions for Chinese immersion program improvement or experiences they would like to share Open-ended The questionnaire was divided into two types of multiple-choice questions allowing one response and allowing multiple responses. Data analysis for this section involved calculating the frequency and percentage of corresponding options for each multiple-choice question. Depending on the objectives of the study and the nature of the data, a variety of analysis methods were used. Descriptive statistics are used by calculating the frequency or count of each response and expressing it as a percentage of the total sample size, which provided a clear overview of the Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 31 response distribution (Fisher & Marshall, 2009). Cross-tabulation was used to explore the relationship or pattern of multiple-choice questions with other variables of interest. In addition, comparative analysis was used to explore differences in responses based on relevant subgroups (e.g., teaching level or years of experience), which helped determine the impact of factors on participants. Results were interpreted and discussed in light of the study objectives to provide meaningful insights into the perspectives and experiences of Chinese immersion teachers in the United States. The data analysis of the open-ended questions used the qualitative content analysis method proposed by Hsieh and Shannon (2005), which is defined as "a research method for the subjective interpretation of textual data content through a systematic classification process that encodes and identifies themes or patterns" (p. 1278). In the questionnaire, open-ended question 10 was used to understand teachers' perceptions of the challenges and their ways of responding to them. Open-ended question 15 had data on the type of training DLI teachers wanted to receive to enhance their professional development. Open-ended question 20 was teachers' feedback on the Chinese DLI program. Open-ended question 22 was used to understand teachers' perceptions of student behavior and classroom management. Open-ended questions 24 and 26 presented support and resources teachers need. Coding is a selective simplification process that compresses text into categories where semantically similar words, phrases, or sentences will be categorized or combined into a theme (Li & Zhou, 2015). Firstly, we segmented the text into small, manipulable units such as words, phrases, sentences, or topics, and manually performed the Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 32 necessary annotation to encode the text. Secondly, rules for encoding the text are established to maintain the consistency of the encoding. Finally, the number of different concepts that need to be encoded was determined. In addition, the depth of analysis (i.e., which words or types of phrases need to be coded) was based on whether to actually code the presence/absence of a concept or the frequency of its occurrence or whether words that imply a particular meaning were also categorized into concepts or categories (including technical terms, euphemisms). Results The link to the Qualtrics questionnaire was sent to 256 teachers via WeChat, and teachers were invited to participate in the survey. After two weeks of questionnaire collection time, 31 teachers responded to the, online Qualtrics questionnaires. Assuming that all teachers in the chat group received the survey invitation, the response rate obtained was 12.10%. The results of the study should be viewed with caution due to the low response rate. The final sample consisted of 31 DLI teachers from 25 schools. The response rate for each question ranged from 92% to 100%. This research aimed to provide practical recommendations for local school districts to enhance the support and infrastructure for Chinese DLI teachers. It includes recommendations for curriculum development, resource allocation, parent engagement, cultural competency training, and building collaborative networks among Chinese DLI teachers. These recommendations can guide policymakers and educational stakeholders in creating an enabling environment for Chinese DLI teachers and promote the success of Chinese immersion programs. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 33 There were five topics divided according to the content of the survey questions: 1) Chinese DLI teachers’ personal background, 2) teachers’ professional development and experience with DLI program, 3) challenges faced as Chinese immersion teachers, 4) DLI program effectiveness and evaluation, 5) supports and resources teachers need. The survey questions in topic 2 were used to answer research question 1, the survey questions in topic 3 were used to answer research question 2, and the questions in topics 4 & 5 were used to answer research question 3. Teachers' Professional Development and Experience with DLI Programs Professional development and experience was the topic of question 1: What are the professional development needs of Chinese DLI teachers, and how can they be better supported in their work? Survey question 6, 7, 11-15, and 17 addressed this topic. When asked, "Have you received any training or professional development related to teaching in a Chinese immersion program in the United States?", majority of teachers (87.10%) indicated that they had received more or less training related to the Chinese immersion program during their time as a Chinese immersion teacher. The other 12.90% chose no training related to the Chinese immersion program. One teacher who selected "No" added that she would like more support in this area of the DLI endorsement (Participant 24). Another teacher said that she would like to receive more support from AUDII, a new teacher training conducted by the Utah Department of Education specifically for the immersion programs (Participant 27). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 34 When asked, "How familiar are you with the special education laws and procedures in the United States?", nearly half of Chinese immersion teachers (41.49%) chose not very familiar. Importantly, more than half of teachers (51.61%) chose somewhat familiar. The percentages of these two options were very close. Two more teachers were very familiar with the laws and procedures of special education in the United States. No teachers chose the option of not familiar at all with special education. When asked, "If you have received assistance or training, how effective was it in helping you overcome the challenges you have faced? ", nearly half of participants (45. 16%) chose very effective, more than half of participants (51.61%) chose somewhat effective. One participant chose not very effective. Table 8 shows the data for questions 7 and 10 of the survey. Table 8 Support for Special Education and Challenges Not at all n (%) Not very n (%) Somewhat n (%) Very n (%) Q7: How familiar are you with the special education laws and 0 (0.00) procedures in the United States? 13 (41.49) 16 (51.61) 2 (6.45) Q 13: How effective was assistance or training in helping you overcome the challenges you have faced? 1 (3.23) 16 (51.61) 14 (45.16) 0 (0.00) Question 11 is "Have you received any assistance or training from your school or district to overcome the challenges you have faced? List the name of training or what type of help.” The data showed almost all teachers (90.32%) agreed that the assistance or training they received Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 35 from their school or district was helpful in overcoming the challenges they faced. A small part of teachers (9.68%) answered no. This means that the support they received from the school or district was not able to help them overcome the challenges they faced. Table 9 lists the help or training that Chinese immersion teachers found helpful in overcoming their challenges. We can see that the most frequent occurrence was that teachers received the most help and training from their schools, school districts, and states. One participant stated, "The district and the state provide some great trainings for teaching subjects other than Chinese- science, math, etc " (Participant 28). We can also see that many participants benefit from the Learning Coach's weekly meetings and various trainings for new teachers at the school, training organized by the school district, and training organized by the state program. "We have a 30-minute meeting every week. We will talk about areas that I can improve and work together to get it" (Participant 7). "The trainings I have participated focused more on teaching pedagogy, language acquisition theories and tech in teaching sometimes " (Participant 8). Not only do schools give new teachers training, such as new curriculum training, but they also provide opportunities for class observation, and states have state fall/winter/spring training for these teachers. The teachers from Utah mentioned that they receive a lot of help from the UEN (Utah Education Network), which is part of the Utah Education and Telehealth Network (UETN). It connects all Utah school districts, schools, and higher education institutions to a robust network and quality educational resources. In addition, one participant mentioned professional training team collaboration coach; another said, my mentor, partner, the principal and my colleagues also help a lot. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 36 Table 9 Sources of Support by Participant Participant Answer P2 School District PD, AUDII, all trainings from UEN (Utah Education Network). P4 AUDII Startalk training, AP Training. P7 By school learning coach. We have a 30-minute meeting every week. We will talk about areas that I can improve and work together to get it. P8 The trainings I have participated focused more on teaching pedagogy, language acquisition theories and tech in teaching sometimes. P9 Chinese team, winter PD, spring PD Learning Coach from school. P10 Learning coach's weekly meetings, various trainings for new teachers at the school, training organized by the school district, training organized by the state program. P11 State training and class observation. P12 Training and learning coach helped me a lot. P13 Hanban training, School district training, Mentor helps a lot. My partner and the principal and my colleagues. P14 PT. P17 New teacher training from school; professional development from district; IB training; attending conferences P18 New curriculum training P20 Yes, such as PBIS training. P21 AUDII training, state fall/winter/spring training, Hanban/ college board’s training P23 Pd training, College board. P26 School training P27 Professional training Team collaboration Coach. P28 The district and the state provide some great trainings for teaching subjects other than Chinese- science, math, etc P29 Online training from the collegeboard. P30 My school is working on adding funding to the Mandarin department. P31 DLI (Dual Language Immersion Program). Question 12 is about "What kind of assistance do you need to overcome the challenges you have faced? The largest number(n=18) of respondents chose the option of professional Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 37 development training. Many teachers(n=13) selected classroom management resources and strategies, teaching methods and style resources and strategies (Table 10). Nearly one-third people selected the option for special education training and resources. Ten participants selected the option for cultural sensitivity and awareness training. Some added what they need in this other option: new technology; funding; Chinese teachers' collaboration to develop learning resources. One teacher added, "I think cultural sensitivity and awareness are especially needed." Table 10 Participant Identified Needs to Overcome Challenges Options Count % Professional development training Classroom management resources and strategies Teaching methods and style resources and strategies Special education training and resources Cultural sensitivity and awareness training Other (please specify) 18 13 13 11 10 4 58.06 41.94 41.94 35.48 32.26 12.90 When asked, "Would you be interested in participating in a professional development training program specifically designed for Chinese immersion teachers in the United States? ", almost all (96.77%) of the teachers were interested in participating in a professional development training program specifically designed for Chinese immersion teachers in the United States (Table 11). One teacher chose not interested in participating. When asked, "How often would you like to participate in professional development training programs specifically designed for Chinese immersion teachers in the United States?", a higher number of participants preferred a Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 38 frequency of two to three trainings a year. The other two respondents said their opinion was monthly, six times a year. One respondent added, "I would like to participate whenever I can. Table 11 Participant’s Preference for Professional Development Frequency Frequency n % Once a year Twice a year Three times a year Other (please specify) Total 4 11 13 3 31 12.9 35.48 41.94 9.68 100 Question 15 was an open-ended question: What kind of professional development or training would you like to receive to improve your teaching in Chinese immersion programs. Responses can be summarized into four key topics: teaching strategies and methodologies, classroom management and instructional design, cultural sensitivity and awareness, collaboration and sharing resources. These topics reflect the specific interests and needs expressed by the respondents. The frequency of each topic was determined by analyzing and counting the participants' responses. Notably, teaching strategies and methodologies emerged as an important topic in the participants' feedback (Table 12). Many participants(n=13) mentioned various teaching strategies and methodologies that they would like to be trained in. These included differentiated instruction, concept-based instruction, world language pedagogy, teaching demonstrations, and new teaching methods. Some(n=7) indicated a need for professional development in classroom management and instructional design. They specifically mentioned Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 39 areas such as curriculum design, classroom examples of instructional objectives, face-to-face classroom observation training, and teaching techniques related to managing cultural differences. Some participants(n=6) expressed a need for "cultural sensitivity and awareness.” They expressed a desire for training in cultural sensitivity, social emotional lessons, and understanding and managing cultural differences. A part of participants(n=6) emphasized the importance of collaboration and resource sharing among teachers. They mentioned the need for opportunities to share resources, ideas, visit other teachers' classrooms, and participate in presentation sessions that promote communication and lesson planning. In addition, as mentioned by some participants, the preference for face-to-face training suggests that offering a combination of face-to-face and online training options may be beneficial in meeting different learning preferences and needs. Some participants mentioned multiple topics in their responses, so their responses may appear in more than one category. Table 12 shows the frequency of a topic and the participant IDs that match that topic. Table 13 shows the responses of participants for question 15. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 40 Table 12 Frequency of Each Professional Development Topic Topic n (%) Participants' IDs 1. Teaching strategies and methodologies 13 (41.94) 1, 2, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 20, 23, 26, 31 2. Classroom management and instructional design 7 (22.58) 5, 9, 13, 19, 21, 23, 27 3. Cultural sensitivity and awareness 6 (19.35) 3, 8, 13, 16, 25, 27 4. Collaboration and sharing resources 6 (19.35) 8, 10, 12, 21, 24, 28 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 41 Table 13 Professional Development Topic by Participant Participants’ IDs 1 2 3 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 21 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Desired by the Participants Working with children with learning differences Teaching math with child-directed approach and different math learning strategies as Teaching social and emotional/ social justice/ diversity and belongings Training for improving students' Chinese reading Social emotional lessons Lesson design differentiated teaching I hope there can be practical strategies that we can use in the classroom to help students learn. Besides, cultural sensitivity and awareness is also needed. It would be great if there are trainings on how to promote immersion program in our community. Classroom examples for instructional objectives. Face-to-face lesson observation training world language teaching pedagogy Share resources and ideas Cultural difference Teaching skill Classroom management Teaching strategies Teaching demo Culture sensitivity and awareness training Teaching methods training Classroom management Concept-based teaching Visit good teacher’s classrooms Know about the curriculum I just need the science resources to be updated. Culture sensitivity and awareness training. New teaching methods Some training like pragmatic teaching resources training or how to build nice relationships with parents and students. I think some great demo classes and the opportunities that allow teachers to communicate and plan lessons together would be really helpful In person training! I think in person training is more effective. Online Zoom meetings Teaching strategies Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 42 Challenges Faced by Chinese Immersion Teachers This topic was used to answer the research question 2: What are the specific challenges faced by Chinese DLI teachers in their daily practice？Survey questions 8-10 and 18, 22, 23 were included in this topic. The survey results for question 8 showed that less than half (45.16%) of the teachers felt that the challenge of transitioning to the U.S. school system was “somewhat difficult.” Interestingly, the number of teachers who felt the challenges were Not very difficult was 41.94%. This showed that these challenges were not very difficult for most teachers. In addition, 12.90% of the teachers thought the challenges were Not difficult at all. The survey results for question 9 showed that, regarding challenges faced as a Chinese immersion teacher, most teachers (56.61%) chose classroom management, 41.94% chose not enough resources or funding to purchase and maintain necessary materials. In addition, some (35.48%) teachers chose lack of materials for diverse learners. In addition to the lack of funding and materials, cultural differences also made it difficult for teachers. It showed that some (32.26%) teachers selected different teaching methods and styles, some (29.03%) teachers selected cultural differences with students. Some (29.03%) teachers chose cultural differences with parents. However, some (25.81%) teachers chose availability of appropriate materials, some (25.81%) chose language barriers, less than a quarter of teachers chose different perceptions and 12.90% selected lack of training and support (See Table 14). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 43 Table 14 Challenges Faced as a Chinese Immersion Teacher n Classroom management 16 Not enough resources or funding to purchase and maintain 13 necessary materials Lack of materials for diverse learners 11 Inclusion of students with special needs 11 Different teaching methods and styles 10 Cultural differences with students 9 Cultural differences with parents 9 Availability of appropriate materials 8 Language barriers 8 Different perceptions and expectations of roles 7 Lack of training and support 4 % 56.61 41.94 35.48 35.48 32.26 29.03 29.03 25.81 25.81 22.58 12.90 Next, 31 teachers answered question10 open-ended response. This question asked the teachers to explain their choice in question 9. The teachers need to explain the specific content and examples of the challenge they faced while teaching in a Chinese immersion program in the United States, as well as the methods to address it. Teachers’ answers showed that the challenges described by the teachers could be grouped into the following categories: 1) cultural differences, 2) lack of resources, 3) language barriers, 4) student difficulties. The teachers who mentioned "Cultural differences" felt that cross-cultural differences caused teachers to adapt to different classroom management, different teaching methods, different teacher roles, and different ways of communicating with students and their parents. Teachers needed to communicate and share more with their colleagues and collaborate. The following comments detailed cultural differences and their solutions: Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges When I have a hard time with communication to my students, I was thinking it is because they are not respectful, or not serious enough about Chinese learning. However, after teaching for 2 years, I do not think the same way as I was. I think students have their own culture to build up their mentalities. They have their attitude towards things around them, but all of these phenomena are from their culture. (P2) Teaching in another country is not an easy job in many ways. Teachers' prior experience can influence their expectations and teaching practice. Communication across cultures is a challenging part but would always be overlooked when planning professional development opportunities for teachers. (P8) The teaching style in the United States, such as encouraging teaching, task-based teaching, emphasizing participation, emphasizing different treatment of different students in teaching, and attaching great importance to teaching management, all of which need to be mastered in practical work. The cultural atmosphere of students varies. It is necessary to agree on clear management regulations and boundaries with students, and abide by them together. The most important thing is to have clear rewards and punishments, not give second chances, and comply with orders and prohibitions. (P10) Classroom management rules are different in the US compared to China or other countries. But the reason behind this I think is cultural differences. (P13) I was born and grew up in a different country and have been taught and trained in different ways in terms of education. (P14) Everyone has different backgrounds and different cultures, teachers and students and their parents. Knowing different cultures will help people understand each 44 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges other which is why cross-cultural communication is important. Respect and love are important. (P16) The cross-cultural differences could be the challenge, for example, transfer from teacher center method to student center method. My solution was to do classroom observations; attend workshops/training; keep practicing by myself. (P20) I was born and raised in China. The education systems are different. It’s hard for me to accept the educational concepts in a short time and then implement them in my class. (P21) For Chinese teachers, classroom management hardly exists, but in the United States, there is no stereotype like Chinese classrooms, so students need to be trained and managed so that they can better maintain the classroom, so these are very important for a novice teacher. The second aspect of the big challenge is about the setting of the curriculum. In the United States, the standards and evaluation methods of the school ’ s examinations set by the Happy Project are prevailing. The Chinese teachers’ perspective is completely different, so teachers need to change their concepts and have a better idea. Understanding and adapting to American Chinese classrooms. (P23) For example, when teaching Science, there are very a few Chinese resources to use. The contents are not attractive and deep enough. (P24) The role of teachers in the United State and China are is different. Also classroom management would hard for new teachers. (P25) 45 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 46 It is very challenging at the beginning to communicate with parents and collaborate with other English teachers or partner teachers due to cultural issues. However, training and support from school could be very useful! (P27) Classroom management is a very wide national challenge, and I think it relates to the school culture and each teacher's teaching pedagogy. Sometimes, it's hard to motivate students to engage in class activities. One of my ways is to put their phone away! Organize their seats according to students learning hobbies and personalities. (P29) The teachers who mentioned "insufficient resources" felt that there was a shortage of fund, quality teaching and learning materials, and teaching training and support which made lesson planning difficult. There were also few Chinese resources available to students. Teachers addressed this problem by sharing with each other and spending a lot of time preparing lessons. The following comments detailed the inconvenience and solutions for teachers and students caused by the lack of resources: For example, we don't have enough mice and headphones at school until the teacher applies and get fund from other places. For differentiation, the teacher has to prepare all the materials for our students. Especially for high levels. It is hard to find appropriate materials online. (P7) Education is a focused but funding is always an issue. (P3) At the very beginning, it is very hard because l was not familiar with the curriculum. But, gradually lot of English teachers start to share their resources. And it becomes easier and easier for me. (P12) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 47 Each school year we only have 100 budget, so cannot buy a lot of things. My idea is to make reward systems and try to get help from parents. (P26) The program doesn’t provide enough resources. The workload of preparing for material development and lesson planning is heavy. (P28) Online Mandarin curriculum accounts for students are pricy. Besides, it’s hard to find a Mandarin curriculum that has Chinese language arts, culture, math, and science all and is affordable at the same time. Teachers spent too much time doing teaching preps. (P30) The teachers who mentioned "language barriers" find a new language environment challenging. Communication in a non-native language can be biased. Teachers needed to be more observant and communicative and integrate teaching into their students' lives so that they can better understand. Teachers needed to learn the English used by students and consider all possible ambiguity when communicating with them. Teachers should use English that students can understand to answer their questions. Teachers needed to understand the interests of students. For example, incorporating body language into teaching, incorporating topics of interest to students into example sentences, encouraging students to introduce their favorite things to the teacher in Chinese, and encouraging students to simulate real-life conversations with each other. The following comments elaborated on the "language barrier" and how it can be addressed: In the beginning, it’s not that easy to get used to the new language environment. (P5) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 48 Language barriers. In the beginning, the students' Chinese listening ability was very poor. As a teacher, I cannot speak English. Consistently teach important vocabulary and allow students to practice using them in context with their own lives. (P9) Language barriers, just entered the United States, and the domestic study of English is very different, a lot of English communication will have a deviation in meaning, such as "ketchup" cannot be said as "tomato sauce.” This can only be solved by continuous communication, exchange, and practice with colleagues, especially in the workplace English is more simple, many words are familiar, many experiences are common, so there is no barrier to communication. (P10) It is hard for me to be a native speaker of English. (P18) Finally, there is the "student's difficulty." Due to the lack of Chinese language environment, students have insufficient motivation, learning resources and opportunities to practice Chinese. In addition, there were students who are of sensitive ages, and the support and assistance that these students need is something that teachers need to focus on. To address this difficulty, teachers had to spend more time preparing lessons. The following comments elaborated on the "student difficulties" and how they were addressed: Classroom management. I believe this must be the top priority among all teachers, especially for students in grades 6-7 who are in a sensitive period, that is, the transition from children to adolescents. Grades 6 and 7 have completely different expression states and management models, and must be analyzed on a case by case basis. (P10) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 49 Students are less motivated when they move up to the secondary level as they don't have enough language environment to practice Chinese. Make teaching more authentic. (P12) Students need to speak all Chinese in the Class, some of them are not good at Chinese so they cannot speak a lot. (P26) The survey results for question 18 showed that regarding cultural sensitivity and awareness: the impact of cultural differences on teachers' teaching experiences, cultural differences make language barriers and misunderstandings appear in the communication between teachers and students and in the communication between teachers and parents. It showed that less than half of teachers chose misunderstandings between teachers and students caused by different cultural norms and values, under a third of teachers chose misunderstandings between teachers and parents caused by language barriers because parents may not speak English or Chinese fluently. Under a third of teachers selected the challenge of incorporating Chinese culture into the curriculum in a meaningful and appropriate way. In addition, over a quarter of teachers selected the difficulty in adapting teaching strategies to the cultural backgrounds of students and parents (Table 15). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 50 Table 15 Cultural Sensitivity and Awareness: Impact of Cultural Differences on Teaching Experiences Challenges faced as a Chinese immersion teacher Misunderstandings between students and teachers caused by different cultural norms and values. n 15 % 48.39 Language barriers between teachers and parents who may not speak English or Chinese fluently. 10 32.26 Challenges in incorporating Chinese culture into the curriculum in a meaningful and appropriate way. 10 32.26 Difficulty in adapting teaching strategies to the cultural background of students and parents. 8 25.81 Need for more training and resources on cultural competency and sensitivity. 7 22.58 Then, the teachers provided answers to open-ended question 22. This question required the teacher to answer whether they have encountered any problems with student behavior or discipline in the classroom and provide relevant solutions. The teachers' answers could be summarized as six points: 1. Seeking help 2. Creating a positive environment 3. Reward system 4. Attitude issues 5. Special education 6. Increase learning motivation. In addition, one teacher believed that avoiding problems was the best way to solve them. One teacher mentioned asking students to calm down in the corner of the classroom, while two teachers mentioned that they had not experienced major problems. Teachers who mentioned "Seeking help" find that seeking help from school administrators, experienced teachers, or parents of students is a solution. The following comments provided a detailed explanation of how teachers seek help: Yes, I followed the guidelines of the Us school systems. (P1) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 51 Students are very irritable in class, pushing desks and chairs, and refusing to study. First, communicate with the partner teacher. Then, organize parents meeting and understand the reason, because the parents are in the divorce period, so the student's mood is very unstable. Finally, Make a plan with the parents and the partner teacher to help the student through this difficult time. (P7) There are many problems. I will seek help from the vice principal, observe the classroom management of other teachers, and encourage students to help each other. (P10) Yes. Let the principal to help. However, the effect is not significant. Another teacher told me one year later, the students exited the immersion classroom. (P13) Sometimes we need to communicate with parents, special education teachers and the administrators to solve problems. (P25) Report to the admin team. (P26) Yes. I seek advice from other experienced teachers. (P28) Teachers who mentioned "Creating a positive environment" followed the advice of PBIS to create a positive environment, and actively communicate with students to solve problems. Positive Behavior Intervention and Support (PBIS) is a school wide management plan based on restorative justice, aimed at improving students' behavior by providing a positive environment (Smith, 2019). The following comments provide a detailed explanation of how teachers create a positive environment and communicate with students: Yes. Positive enforcement.（P18） Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 52 Yes. I used PBIS methods. (P20) Build up positive relationships with students help a lot. (P23) Sure. It exists in every classroom. Be knowledgeable to understand my students. Meet their needs and help them be successful. (P24) Teachers who mentioned the "Reward system" believed that 'rewards' are a positive form of support. The following comments provide a detailed explanation of how teachers use the 'Reward system': We have reward system. (P25) It happens in every classroom in the USA. Students misbehaving do break the class rules but I usually have a reward system to positively support students, and also consequences to warn them.（P27） Teachers who mentioned "Attitude issues" believed that students' behavior cannot be entirely attributed to attitude issues. Student behavior is complex, and teachers need to understand the reasons for this complexity. The following comments provided a detailed explanation of how teachers' views changed: I had some issues with students' behavior two years ago. I thought the reason for those issues are not all because of the students' bad attitude. It came from complicated reasons. I had to admit that part of the reason is that I was still learning how to teach secondary level class and handle the brand new curriculum. (P2) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 53 It’s hard for certain students to follow the Chinese only rule. (P21) The teacher who mentioned "Special education" emphasized "autistic" students and the students mentioned in Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Teachers need to pay attention to the needs of these students and provide them with assistance. Here are the detailed comments from the teachers: Not really. Unless the students have 504 then accommodations will be arranged. (P3) Yes, the student with autism. (P19) Teachers who mentioned "Increasing learning motivation" believe that teachers should understand students' learning interests and find ways to enhance their learning interests. Here are the detailed comments from the teachers: Some students chat during class. Assign tasks to promote students' interest in learning. (P9) Participate in classroom activities, stimulate learning motivation, give students more choices, and understand the reasons behind their inability to concentrate or participate! (P29) The survey results for question 23 revealed that regarding the challenges of classroom management and instructional strategies: ways to involve parents and family members in the DLI program, a majority of (90. 32%) teachers chose parent-teacher conferences, more than half of teachers chose to invite parents to cultural events and celebrations, more than half of teachers Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 54 chose to provide parents with Chinese language resources to use with their children at home. Teachers preferred to give parents resources and invite parents to events and conferences so that parents of students could participate in the program. A minority of teachers chose to maintain communication with parents and wanted parents to create a Chinese environment at home. It showed that some (29.03%) of teachers chose to encourage parents to use Chinese with their children at home, some (22.58%) of teachers chose to hold parent workshops and events in Chinese to learn about the immersion program, and some (19.35%) of the teachers chose to create a parent group that meets regularly to discuss the topics of the immersion program. One teacher's suggestion was to provide parents with background knowledge in English and a newsletter. In addition, one teacher's suggestion was to provide weekly updates (See Table 16). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 55 Table 16 Ways to Involve Parents and Family Members in the DLI Program n 28 % 90.32 Providing resources in Chinese for parents to use at home with their children 16 51.61 Inviting parents to participate in cultural events and celebrations 16 51.61 Encouraging parents to use Chinese at home with their children 9 29.03 Parent workshops and events in Chinese to learn about the immersion program 7 22.58 Creating a parent group that meets regularly to discuss immersion program topics 6 19.35 Provide background knowledge in English and newsletter for parents to be aware of the progress and learning goals 1 3.23 Weekly updates 1 3.23 Parent-teacher conferences DLI Program Effectiveness and Evaluation This topic was used to answer the research question 3: What recommendations can be made to local school districts to effectively support Chinese DLI teachers and optimize the Chinese immersion program? Survey question 19-21 were included in this topic. In question 19, 31 teachers evaluated the effectiveness of Chinese immersion programs. It showed that more than half of the teachers selected Very effective, followed by more than one-third of teachers who selected Somewhat effective. Only 3.23% of teachers chose Neutral/Undecided. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Then, the teachers gave open-ended answers to question 20. Question 20 required teachers to explain the selection of the effectiveness of the Chinese Immersion program in question 19 and provide more detailed feedback. The teachers' responses could be summarized into two points: 1. the effect of the program was effective, 2. the effect of the program was not significant. The teachers who mentioned "the effect of the program was effective" felt that the program improved the students' language proficiency, behavior, and academic performance. Students could say some simple daily conversations. With the help of the teacher, students improved their input and output of Chinese. Several teachers emphasized the importance of listening, speaking, reading, writing, and understanding Chinese culture. The following comments detailed the effectiveness of the program: I give assessments every other Friday. I usually use Canvas. Students are serious in the assessment. They want to have a good grade on each of my tests. (P2) Students need to use all language skills in different performance assignments to prove that they have mastered the listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in Chinese. My students have performed excellently in these areas. (P3) There is a paper test in Math academic assessment. There is an oral test in the Chinese Language Proficiency Assessment. The students have achieved good results in these tests. (P7) 56 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Students can say some simple daily conversations. However, students also need to watch more videos to understand real China and Chinese culture, not just written or listening. (P9) AAPPL and AP are the two main assessments we use. My students have achieved good results in both tests. (P11) Best way to learn a language. (P12) Teacher's skill is very important. Under my leadership, the students have made significant progress. (P15) High level. (P16) From School Data ， We can see that the students' Chinese proficiency has significantly improved. (P17) My students performed very well in the oral test. (P19) Very effective for students to learn both target languages. (P20) Students are immersed in the Chinese-only learning environment. More inputs results in more outputs. (P21) Building positive relationships with students helps a lot. (P23) AAPPL test, my classes passed it 100％ two-year back to back. From this, it can be seen that Chinese immersion program is very effective. (P24) We have a reward system and sometimes we need to communicate with parents, special education teachers, and administrators to solve problems. The reward system has improved the Chinese level of students. (P25) 57 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 58 Base on the rubrics to explain it. I think this is very effective. (P26) Currently, the Chinese Immersion program is very important for students who want to learn language and cultural knowledge! Generally, compared with the students who didn't join the immersion, those students who are in the immersion have fewer behavior problems and academic issues. (P29) The k-5 immersion students showed good Chinese language proficiency in all areas: reading, listening, speaking, and writing. (P30) Teachers who mentioned “the effect of the program was not significant” believe that the effectiveness of the Chinese immersion project is related to the location of the project. However, it’s difficult for students to reach an advanced level of Chinese proficiency and their motivation to continue learning Chinese after graduation was insufficient. The following comments provide a detailed explanation of the insignificant effects of the plan: We see the program growing but also experiencing difficulties of losing students, especially in higher grade levels. Students and parents lack the motivation to stay in the program or continue with Mandarin learning after high school. This shows that the effect of the program is still somewhat lacking. (P8) The immersion program is effective in certain places but not effective in all states and cities. (P14) The content-driven model is effective for students' academic achievement, especially since most of the DLI students achieve higher academic scores, such as math or science, than non-immersion students. However, I don't think it is super Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 59 effective for language proficiency itself, as we can tell Chinese learners are usually stuck at intermediate level. (P27) Based on what I have seen, it is hard for Chinese immersion kids to get to an advanced level. (P28) In question 21, 31 teachers selected the top three factors to assess the effectiveness of their courses. The survey results showed that more than half of teachers chose "Students' fluency in Chinese.” More than half of teachers chose "Students' ability to use Chinese in real-life situations.” Interestingly, more than half of the teachers chose "the academic performance of students in the immersion program compared to the non-immersion program.” Thus, most teachers placed more emphasis on language fluency, practice, and academic performance in their assessments. It showed that less than half of teachers selected "the cultural awareness and understanding that students gain through the Chinese immersion program", second only to the first three. However, a minority of teachers selected student future development and student and parent satisfaction with the program. However, over a quarter of teachers selected "The success of graduates of the Chinese Immersion program in terms of college and career opportunities", some (16.13%) of teachers selected "Parent and student satisfaction with the Chinese Immersion Program" (See Table 17). Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 60 Table 17 Considerations for Evaluating Program Effectiveness n 19 % 61.29 The ability of students to use Chinese language skills in real-life situations. 19 61.29 The academic performance of students in Chinese Immersion compared to non-immersion programs. 18 58.06 The cultural awareness and understanding gained by students through the Chinese Immersion program. 14 45.16 The success of graduates of the Chinese Immersion program in college and career opportunities. 8 25.81 The satisfaction of parents and students with the Chinese Immersion program. 5 16.13 The level of fluency achieved by students in the Chinese language. Supports and Resources Teachers Need This topic was used to answer the research question 3: What recommendations can be made to local school districts to effectively support Chinese DLI teachers and optimize the Chinese immersion program? Survey question 16, 24-26 were included in this topic. In the question 16, teachers chose areas of professional development training would like to receive. Survey results showed that most of teachers chose classroom management, more than half of teachers chose teaching methods and styles. Therefore, training in classroom management and teaching methods is a priority for the school or district when arranging training for teachers. Cultural sensitivity and awareness were selected by less than half of teachers, parent communication by less than one-third of teachers, and special education by some (22.58%) of Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 61 teachers. In addition, one teacher mentioned social justice and diversity, Social-Emotional Learning (SEL). One teacher mentioned science PowerPoint and hands on activities, and one mentioned differentiation (See Table 18). Table 18 Participants’ Preferred Professional Development Topics Classroom management Teaching methods and styles Cultural sensitivity and awareness Parent communication Special education Social justice, diversity SEL Science PowerPoint and hands on activities Differentiation n 20 17 15 10 7 1 1 1 % 64.52 54.84 48.39 32.26 22.58 3.23 3.23 3.23 Then, 19 teachers responded to question 24, an open-ended response, “Suggestions for Chinese immersion program improvement or experiences they would like to share.” The teachers' responses could be summarized into five ideas: (1) sharing resources, (2) home-school cooperation, (3) more funds, (4) training, and (5) cultural activities and Chinese competitions. One teacher mentioned the unreasonableness of the teaching objectives. This teacher felt that there were so many perspectives for teachers to teach that they were not sure how to fit it all in the curriculum. Teachers who mentioned resource sharing thought this resource should include cooperation and communication between teachers and cooperation between schools and the latest publishers of teaching materials. The following comments detail the importance of resource sharing. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges I think my only suggestion is to have more and more teachers collaborate with each other, and create more communication. (P2) More local teachers. (P19) Getting con with new publishers and adopting more resources. (P24) More communication meetings can be added. (P10) Teaching cooperation. (P15) Teachers learn from each other. (P24) Provide more specific help for teachers like developing teacher materials. (P28) The following comments detail the importance of collaboration between teachers, students, and parents: I hope there can be some guidance for students and parents on what are the benefits students will get after so many years of staying in the program. For example, a minor in Mandarin if they fulfill the requirements? I am eager to know that information to help my student’s parents to see the hope and meaning of staying with MI program. It will help to attract more students to MI as well. (P8) Educate the parents. (P11) Probably inviting parents to be volunteers to be in charge of Christmas parties in the classroom. (P27) 62 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 63 Three teachers emphasized the need for more financial support. The comments below detailed the importance of training that includes language training, training on handling home-school relationships, and training on culture. Train teachers to use final goals as teaching guidance. Train teachers to see the importance of teamwork. Train teachers to assess students' language skills and fluency in different forms not just standardized tests. (P3) New teachers should have American cultural training to better adjust to the new teaching environment and the parents and local teachers should learn to be more open-minded to learn other cultures. All the other countries know American culture but most Americans hardly know other cultures. (P25) The comments below detailed the importance of hosting cultural events and Chinese competitions, and that students need more platforms to learn and apply their skills. More Chinese Cultural Activities. (P9) Have a state-wide competition in Chinese. (P12) Need more platforms or resources for the students. (P17) In question 25, 31 teachers were asked to select the help they needed from their school or district to better serve their students. The survey results showed that most teachers emphasized the importance of sharing resources. In fact, 54.84% selected "More time for planning and collaboration with other immersion teachers.” In addition, over a half of teachers chose Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 64 "Increased access to resources and materials" as a help. More than one-third of the respondents (38.71%) selected "Additional support for students with special needs or English language learners in the immersion program." More than one-third of the teachers chose "More support with classroom management and student behavior." The same percentage, 38.71%, chose "More professional development opportunities." However, some (35.48%) chose "Better communication with administration and parents" as a help. In addition, lower than one-third of the teachers chose "More opportunities for cultural and language immersion experiences for students" (Table 19). Table 19 Supports Identified by Participants to Help Students n 17 % 54.84 16 51.61 Additional support for students with special needs or English language learners in the immersion program More support with classroom management and student behavior More professional development opportunities 12 38.71 12 38.71 12 38.71 Better communication with administration and parents 11 35.48 More opportunities for cultural and language immersion experiences for students 9 29.03 More time for planning and collaboration with other immersion teachers Increased access to resources and materials Finally, the teacher provided an open-ended response to question 26: "Suggestions for Chinese immersion program improvement or experiences they would like to share. The teachers' responses could be summarized into five points: (1) support in teaching and sharing resources; (2) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 65 affirmation of the role of the immersion classroom and pride in their profession; (3) attention to cultural differences; (4) advice on mindset; and (5) purpose of teaching and learning. The following comments detailed the importance of support and sharing of resources for teachers: I need support to communicate cross cultures, on how to promote the MI program and guidance on how to help students get minors in Mandarin so students can be more motivated in learning the language. (P8) Communication, sharing-based learning, multiple activities, appropriate and strict requirements. (P9) I think if we could share all the resources as much as we can, it will be better for students and teachers. (P12) The teachers who affirmed the role of the immersion classroom and took pride in their profession felt that the Chinese immersion program was a very effective program and that both teachers and students could benefit more if the program got better and better. One teacher emphasized the need for teachers to be aware of cultural differences. One teacher mentioned the advice on mindset, this teacher believes in enjoying the classroom and balancing your life with your studies. One teacher gave advice on the purpose of teaching, saying, "Teachers need to see the purpose of teaching is to support students to gain real life skills." Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 66 Discussion Cultural Differences Are the Biggest Problem Cultural differences are Chinese DLI teachers’ biggest challenge, and cultural differences present them with a range of challenges, such as the initial challenges of transitioning to the United States, classroom management, and cross-cultural teaching. This study found that the challenges of transitioning to the U.S. system were difficult for most Chinese immersion teachers, but the difficulties were not severe. The initial challenges of transitioning to the U.S. system primarily included language barriers and teachers' own lack of professionalism. Notably, the teachers' challenges shifted as their teaching experience increased. Deeply rooted educational beliefs shape teachers' behaviors, and they mimic the teaching styles of their previous teachers and refer to the models they have experienced, which leads them to feel that it is difficult to make the transition. In Xu's (2012) qualitative case study, Chinese teachers working in the United States were found to encounter challenges with language barriers. Furthermore, Ma's (2020) and Li's (2015) studies reported the same finding that language barriers were a significant challenge for most immersion teachers, which is in line with our study's findings. We found that most teachers mentioned that adapting to a new language environment is not easy and that they also need to adapt to a different educational system. New educational and cultural systems can be very challenging for new Chinese teachers working in American schools. As a participant said, the commonly spoken language for communication in the U.S. is quite different from the English Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 67 she learned in China, and some expressions may bring about deviations in meaning. She believed that the only way to overcome these language barriers was through constant communication, exchange and practice with her colleagues. Chinese immersion teachers are concerned about their English proficiency. Some participants mentioned the difficulty of explaining the meaning and communicating to students in English or an appropriate language because of their lack of English proficiency level. Many of the participants' responses demonstrated a high level of demand for their own professional development. The teachers' lack of professionalism determined the initial challenges of their struggling transition to the U.S. system, something that has not been addressed in prior literature or research. It reflects the concern of most teachers to achieve self-worth. According to the existing literature, Hoare (2001) emphasized the importance of professional development for immersion teachers by suggesting that immersion teachers should have the opportunity to obtain the necessary professional development to become more "linguistically aware.” Tedick et al.'s (2011) study found that immersion teachers may not understand the interdependence between academic learning and language learning, and that they have difficulty identifying the language to be taught and how to effectively teach the language while teaching the content (p. 7). Chinese born and raised teachers face difficulties and challenges in teaching a new curriculum and embracing an entirely new educational system. Teachers admitted that they found the transition to the U.S. system challenging because they were unfamiliar with the curriculum and were just learning how to handle an entirely new curriculum. However, increased professional growth can Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 68 help teachers meet the challenges. When teachers engage in active forms of learning, such as guided reflection, action research, and collaboration with peers, they are able to identify, reflect on, and ultimately overcome challenges in their teaching practices. Teachers' challenges shift with increased teaching experience. In our review of the existing relevant literature, Liao et al. (2017) mentioned that many Chinese native speakers with diverse educational backgrounds and limited teaching experience were recruited to teach k-12 in the United States after receiving short-term cultural and pedagogical instruction, but these Chinese teachers often experienced significant challenges early in their teaching careers. Melnick et al. (2008) and Plessis et al. (2014) both found that challenges are caused by multiple factors and that teachers' educational backgrounds and teaching experiences may influence the challenges they will face. By discussing the responses to the survey questions from groups with different teaching experiences, a connection between teaching experience and challenges can be established. Based on the results of the survey, we found that four teachers did not find the transition to the U.S. school system difficult at all, but all of these teachers had experience teaching in China or the U.S. before becoming Chinese immersion teachers, and three of them graduated from U.S. universities. All four had experience with U.S. cultural before becoming an immersion teacher and those who had not had that experience found the transition difficult. This reveals that teachers' teaching experience and educational backgrounds are critical to developing oral language skills and cultural understanding. Melnick and Meister (2008) compared the challenges faced by novice and experienced teachers and found that teachers faced significantly Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 69 fewer challenges in classroom management and parent interactions as they gained teaching experience. Together, these studies demonstrate the important role of professional background in shaping teacher challenges. As they gain teaching experience, teachers develop new insights about their students and the teaching environment and, therefore, are more likely to be able to overcome challenges. As P8 stated, “Teaching in another country is not an easy job in many ways. Teachers' prior experience can influence their expectations and teaching practice. Communication across cultures is a challenging part but would always be overlooked when planning professional development opportunities for teachers.” Even though the teachers adjusted their life after their initial years, they were still strongly influenced by their upbringing and the culture they grew up with. This study found that many teachers struggle with classroom management, such as dealing with student behavior or discipline issues, managing student misbehavior, maintaining communication with parents, accepting students with special needs, and evaluating students' mastery of the knowledge they have learned. Many participants' responses reflected the difficulty of dealing with student behavior or disciplinary issues in the classroom. This indicated that cross-cultural differences hinder Chinese DLI teachers from using the effective management methods they had accumulated in classrooms of China in the classrooms in America. This result was similar to other studies, such as Liao and Yuan, and Zhang (2017), who found that many teachers reported difficulties and setbacks in managing students' bad behavior and maintaining an orderly learning environment in their Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 70 teaching challenges to Chinese immersion teachers in public schools in the United States. A study by Zhou and Li (2015) on the expectations and perceptions of Chinese immersion teachers toward American students' behavior showed that teachers considered discipline to be an awkward word. In the classroom, teachers needed to spend a lot of time dealing with students' disciplinary issues, which directly leaded to slower teaching progress. To address the issue of students' bad behavior, a teacher mentioned that she would choose to communicate with their parents. This phenomenon reflected that parents can be good helpers in managing classroom discipline. However, most teachers had reported that communicating with parents is a challenge. This indicated that cross-cultural differences and differences in learning objectives made communication between teachers and parents difficult. This viewpoint was consistent with the views of scholars such as Lee (2015) and Jin and Zhang (2018) on the conflict between Chinese immersion teachers and student's parents. Due to there were specialized schools and teachers in China to educate students with special education needs, it’s difficult for teachers who didn’t work in these schools to have the opportunity to accumulate teaching experience in special education. This was a manifestation of the dilemma caused by cross-cultural differences in the teaching system. This viewpoint was consistent with the research conducted by Jin and Zhang (2018), Lee (2015), and Xu (2012) on the challenges faced by Chinese immersion teachers. In our research, teachers had a sense of student evaluation and do not consider it a difficult task. This demonstrated that both in the United States and China, teachers have a sense Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 71 of student evaluation. This was somewhat inconsistent with the conclusion of Liao et al.’s (2017) study on the evaluation of students by Chinese immersive teachers. In the research of these three scholars, teachers initially did not realize the importance of evaluating students. In addition, our study found that the evaluation methods most teachers use were listening, speaking, reading, and writing tests. This indicated that Chinese DLI teachers still preferred to use very traditional testing methods to evaluate students. Two teachers mentioned the AAPPL test, which was not mentioned in previous literature. Most teachers emphasized the importance of practice in evaluation. This indicated that Chinese DLI teachers not only hoped that students can have good grades, but also hoped that students can apply the knowledge they have learned to practice. After evaluating the students, the teachers found that students' Chinese proficiency was not very high. Although students could achieve good results in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, they still lack practical application. The teaching challenge caused by cultural differences was a dilemma experienced by teachers. Multiple teachers mentioned difficulties in communicating with students and their parents. This indicated that in order to adapt to the cultural background of students and parents, teachers have to change their teaching strategies. The different understandings and expectations of roles between teachers and students have led to misunderstandings between teachers and students. In the study of Wu et al. (2011), although parents respect teachers, conflicts between teachers and parents may arise due to differences in cultural norms, values, and learning objectives. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 72 Furthermore, most teachers mention communication difficulties caused by language. A teacher mentioned that it is difficult for her to use English as her mother tongue. This indicated that many Chinese DLI teachers' English proficiency didn’t meet the standards for teaching in schools in the United States. In Zhou and Li's (2015) study on language barriers for Chinese immersion teachers, teachers mentioned that although English is a good tool for answering questions, sometimes they find it difficult to understand the slang students use, and sometimes students find it difficult to understand what the teacher wants to express. Most teachers mentioned that in American classrooms, teaching methods needed to shift from "teacher-centered" to "student-centered", and teachers need to consider students' sensitivity and provide assistance to students with special needs. This demonstrates the difference in emphasis between the educational concepts of China and the United States. This viewpoint also appeared in the research of three scholars, Liao et al. (2017), on the challenges faced by Chinese immersion teachers. In order to solve these communication difficulties, most teachers will gain experience through communication, sharing, and collaboration with colleagues. This indicated that colleagues in the school can be a beneficial resource for Chinese DLI teachers. This method was consistent with the solution proposed by scholars Zhou and Li's (2015) study on the expectations of Chinese language teachers toward American students. In addition, in our study, three teachers mentioned the importance of conveying Chinese culture to students, believing that more cultural activities and Chinese competitions can enable Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 73 students to learn and apply their skills. This indicated the affirmation and love of Chinese culture among DLI teachers in China. This viewpoint was consistent with the emphasis and methods demonstrated by scholars Wu, Palmer, and Field's (2011) research on the professional self-awareness of Chinese immersion teachers in conveying Chinese culture. In addition, in our research, a teacher proposed the importance of encouraging students to watch more videos and understand the real China and Chinese culture, rather than just teaching in writing or listening. This was not mentioned in previous research. This indicated that DLI teachers were not only valuing academic performance, but also increasingly valuing students' understanding of Chinese culture. Lack of Internal and External Support Is One of the Challenges Lack of Teaching Resource Support In terms of insufficient resources, teachers mentioned insufficient resources for teaching strategies and methods, insufficient training and resources for special education (telling them how to accommodate students with special needs), insufficient materials suitable for different learners, insufficient Chinese resources for students to expand their learning, and insufficient suitable and high-quality textbooks. A teacher emphasized that if we could share all resources as much as possible, it would be better for both students and teachers. This indicated that in terms of resource sharing, teachers needed to actively strive for it and schools needed to take some measures to promote the convenience of resource sharing. These phenomena of resource scarcity are consistent with the views of Wu et al. (2011), three scholars, on the support needed for Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 74 Chinese immersive teachers. This result indicates that the teacher emphasized the importance of cooperation and resource sharing. Due to the lack of cooperation between colleges and teachers, teachers can only design courses based on personal experience, which also leads to the limited teaching resources available to a large number of teachers. The lack of training and collaboration with the college has limited their professional development. Therefore, teachers hope to receive more training opportunities and high-quality teaching resources. Lack of External Resource Support Our research showed that the external resource support that teachers lack was divided into three types: funding, training, and support from parents, schools, and school districts. In terms of funding, teachers felt that they do not have sufficient resources or funds to purchase and maintain necessary materials. This indicated that parents, schools, and school districts need to invest more in teaching funding. This is consistent with the difficulties faced by teachers due to the lack of funding mentioned by scholars Chen (2022) and Chen et al. (2017) in their research on the support required for Chinese immersion teachers. In terms of training, teachers generally believed that there was a lack of opportunities for professional development training. This indicated that the current training received by teachers does not meet their needs. In addition to emphasizing teaching strategies and methods, classroom management and instructional design, special education, and new technologies, personnel involved in the development of training should also incorporate cultural sensitivity and methods of communication with parents into the training.This was consistent with Chen's (2022), Chen, Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 75 Yang, and Chen's (2017) research on the training needs of Chinese immersive teachers. When it comes to the support of school administrators, experienced teachers, or parents of students, teachers think that they will receive help from these three parties to address students' bad behavior. This indicated that these three parties were good helpers for classroom discipline management. They needed to be more proactive in helping and understanding Chinese DLI teachers. This viewpoint was also emphasized in Lindholm Leary and Borsato's (2018) study on Chinese immersive projects. Most teachers hope that parents can create a Chinese language environment for students. This indicated that parents were not aware of the importance of their role in creating a Chinese language environment outside of the classroom. This is consistent with Chung's view in 2021 on the support that parents can provide to teachers. The best way to support students is to create a language environment, regardless of whether parents can speak an immersion language. In the study by Wu, Palmer, and Field (2011) on the support of students' parents for Chinese immersion teachers, teachers believed that if parents can create an environment for speaking Chinese, then parents can bridge the gap between learning and deep understanding at home and school for students. The school can establish a parent-teacher conference at the beginning of the semester, so that teachers can work with students' parents to develop an off campus Chinese learning plan for students, so that parents can urge students to learn according to the plan and regularly provide teachers with students' learning feedback. In terms of teaching resources, teachers can provide parents with some interesting Chinese movies or songs, allowing parents and students to watch, Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 76 sing, and discuss together. This can not only promote the dissemination of culture, but also enhance students' learning enthusiasm and alleviate the pain they feel when spending extra time studying. Lack of Student Motivation is One of the Challenges To answer research question 2: What are the specific challenges faced by Chinese DLI teachers in their daily practice? This study found that the lack of students' learning motivation was the challenge faced by teachers. This challenge was manifested in three parts. They are the lack of Chinese language environment for students, the lack of motivation for students to learn Chinese, and the lack of learning resources and opportunities for students. Lack of Chinese Language Environment for Students In our research, most teachers mentioned the issue of students lacking a Chinese language environment indicating that the language environment provided by the Chinese DLI project for students was far from sufficient. In the study by Wu et al.’s (2011) on the challenges of Chinese immersion teachers, one teacher mentioned that relying solely on Chinese immersion programs in schools to improve students' Chinese language proficiency is not enough, and students need more Chinese language learning environments. In addition, in our study, a teacher mentioned that due to insufficient language environment to practice Chinese, students' learning motivation decreases after entering middle school. This lack of language environment is consistent with the conclusions drawn by Chen et al. (2017) in their research on the challenges faced by Chinese immersion projects. In their research, the teachers mentioned that most children do not come Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 77 from Chinese speaking families. Therefore, children rarely had the opportunity to speak Chinese outside of school. Lack of Motivation for Students to Learn Chinese In our research, most teachers mentioned that students' motivation to learn Chinese is insufficient. In order to increase students' learning motivation, teachers will discover students' learning interests, and improve their learning interests by assigning classroom tasks and giving students more choices. In Zhou and Li’s (2015) study of Chinese immersion teachers improving students' classroom participation, teachers will use incentive mechanisms such as giving students candy to promote students' learning enthusiasm. This indicated that teachers needed to explore students' learning interests and provide substantial rewards for students. Lack of Learning Resources and Opportunities for Students Most teachers mentioned that the lack of learning resources and learning opportunities is one of the reasons for the lack of learning motivation of students. One teacher mentioned that online Mandarin course accounts for students are expensive. This indicated that the Chinese DLI program required more people to create and share learning resources for free or at a low price. If students can easily find suitable Mandarin learning resources outside of the classroom, their learning enthusiasm can also be improved. In the study by Wu et al. (2011) on the support needed for Chinese immersion teachers, teachers stated that providing learning resources related to students' cultural backgrounds and life experiences is crucial. Teachers believed it is necessary to improve learning resources and textbooks according to students' needs. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 78 Challenges of Language Immersion Programs Most Students Hardly Reach a High Level in Chinese Almost all Chinese immersion teachers rate the DLI program as effective and the Chinese immersion program is currently very important for students who want to learn about the language and culture, but teachers find that most Chinese language learners typically stay at an intermediate level. Many studies reported a similar picture, that most DLI programs in the United States tend to be transitional in nature, as it is unrealistic to expect all children to master a second language within a few years (Lessow-Hurley, 2013). For language immersion, this difficulty is having enough time for their participants to demonstrate grade-level proficiency (Lindholm-Leary, 2012). In addition, language immersion programs face difficulties in how to develop high levels of proficiency in both languages. Research has shown that "effective programs utilize methods that can help promote higher levels of bilingualism" (Lindholm-Leary, 2012, p. 261). This indicated that the DLI program played an introductory and transitional role for Chinese learners, and currently it cannot directly cultivate students into bilingual talents proficient in Chinese. In addition, based on the responses from the Chinese Immersion teachers we found that while the program is growing, it is also experiencing student attrition, especially in the higher grades. Students and parents lack the motivation to stay in the program or to continue learning Mandarin after high school. This indicated that after mastering some very basic and simple Chinese, they do not continue to study to reach a high level of Chinese. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 79 DLI Program Lacks Quality Teachers The lack of qualified and competent teachers is one of the greater challenges facing immersion programs. This finding is similar to previous research by Chen and Li (2022), who showed that one of the two major challenges facing the development of DLI programs in the U.S. is the lack of teacher candidates with immersion qualifications in schools. Liao et al. (2017) noted that the increase in Chinese language programs may be accompanied by a shortage of talented Chinese teachers. While the United States requires teachers to have the theory and practice of educational philosophy and psychology, China does not have such requirements for teachers, so many Chinese teachers have limited knowledge and experience in working with students with special needs (Chen et al., 2022). Our findings revealed that all of these teachers from China had diverse backgrounds, including early childhood education, education, teaching Chinese as a foreign language, aesthetics, and more. Some teachers were Chinese language teaching professionals but had no teaching experience, and these teachers faced many management challenges. One Chinese immersion teacher felt that the dual language immersion program urgently needed more Chinese teachers with teaching experience and professionalism. One participant's suggestions for improving the Chinese immersion program specifically emphasized that teachers must be clear about the purpose of teaching and learning, and that teachers need to see that the purpose of teaching is to support students in acquiring real life skills. This is similar to previous perspectives in the literature that teachers in language immersion play an important role, so finding highly qualified teachers for language immersion is critical, and Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 80 finding dual language teachers in the United States is not easy (Freeman et al., 2005). We were pleased to see that some teachers were unabashedly positive about the role of the immersion program and proud of their careers. There is no doubt that the search for more high-quality teachers in dual language immersion program is an important boost and enhancement to the program, improving the quality of instruction and enhancing students' language skills while stimulating interest and motivation in learning. Conclusion In conclusion, this study is of great significance in preparing and supporting Chinese immersion programs. School and district administrators can learn how to more effectively assist Chinese DLI teachers by understanding this study. People who want to become DLI teachers can understand their own shortcomings and the direction of their efforts through this study. People who have become DLI teachers can learn some methods to solve difficulties and the help they can provide for the development of projects through this study. Parents of students in this project can gain a better understanding of the teaching objectives of the project and how to effectively support teachers' teaching work through this research. Suggestions Firstly, schools and school districts should provide assistance and support to teachers based on their needs. School and district personnel can refer to the following suggestions: Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 81 1. Establish a teacher practice community to promote cooperation and resource sharing among teachers, enabling teachers to collaborate with other immersive teachers and increasing opportunities to access resources and materials. 2. The training provided to teachers needs to include professional development or training in teaching strategies and methods, classroom management and instructional design, cultural sensitivity, and awareness, collaboration and shared resources, and language and communication methods. It is best to combine online and offline modes. 3. Provide more professional development opportunities for teachers. 4. When setting teaching goals for teachers, it is necessary to comprehensively consider the amount of funds, the quality of teaching materials, and the level of students. 5. Give teachers more time to plan their courses. 6. Optimize communication channels between teachers, management departments, and parents. 7. Organize cultural activities for students and provide them with more opportunities to immerse themselves in culture and language. 8. Provide more support for classroom management and student behavior. Provide additional support for students with special needs or immersive English learners. 9. Provide funding for teachers. Secondly, teachers who plan to go to the United States to be immersion teachers of Chinese, cannot rely only on the support of future schools and future colleagues. These teachers can refer to the following suggestions: Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 82 1. Teachers can accumulate teaching experience by working as Chinese/English teachers in schools or training institutions in China or countries outside of the United States. 2. Improve one's English proficiency and self-study teaching strategies and methods, classroom management and instructional design, cultural sensitivity, and awareness. 3. Obtain a Master's degree in Education/a degree in the subject you want to teach in the Chinese immersion program. Thirdly, for teachers who have come to the United States to become immersive Chinese teachers, in addition to actively communicating and improving their education background, they also need to achieve resource sharing among teachers. These teachers can refer to the following suggestions: 1. Sharing teaching experience and resources with local teachers. 2. Create a positive teaching environment. Actively communicate with students, parents, school administrators, and experienced teachers. 3. Obtaining a Master's degree in Education from an US credited university. Finally, there are some suggestions for parents. As parents of students involved in the Chinese immersion project, they need to participate in the project and actively cooperate with the teacher. Parents can refer to the following suggestions: 1. Accept Chinese resources provided by teachers and create an environment where students can speak Chinese at home. 2. Actively participate in activities and meetings provided by teachers and maintain communication with them. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 83 Limitation and Suggestions for Future Research This study is limited in three areas. First, the study had a small sample size and may have been limited by the small sample size of participants. The responses collected from a limited number of Chinese DLI teachers where the views may not fully reflect the breadth and depth of experience in the population. Future studies should consider including a more diverse group of schools or districts with expanded sample sizes. In order to improve the generalizability of the findings and to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and needs of Chinese DLI teachers. Second, participant self-report bias may have contributed to the limitations of the study. The data collected in the study relied on participants' self-reported responses. This introduces the possibility of self-report bias, where participants may provide socially desirable responses or exaggerate their experiences. Future research could consider integrating multiple data sources, such as classroom observations, teacher journals, or interviews, to validate the findings. Third, the study had a limited perspective, focusing primarily on the experiences of Chinese DLI teachers and their perspectives. It is important to recognize that there are other stakeholders involved in Chinese language immersion programs, such as students, parents, administrators, and community members, whose perspectives and experiences can provide valuable advice. Future research should consider integrating multiple perspectives to gain a more comprehensive understanding of Chinese immersion programs and the challenges and opportunities for teachers. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 84 References Acosta, J., Williams III, J., & Hunt, B. (2019). 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Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. Tedick, D. J. (Ed.). (2013). Second language teacher education: International perspectives. Routledge. Veilleux, I., & Bournot-Trites, M. (2005). Standards for the language competence of French immersion teachers: Is there a danger of erosion? Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne de l'éducation, 28(3), 487-507. https://doi.org/10.2307/4126480 Wu, H. P., Palmer, D. K., & Field, S. L. (2011). Understanding teachers' professional identity and beliefs in the Chinese heritage language school in the USA. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 24(1), 47-60. Xu, H. (2012). Challenges native Chinese teachers face in teaching Chinese as a foreign language to non-native Chinese students in US classrooms. Archives, 27(35). http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.27.3696 Zhao, Y. (2009). Catching up or leading the way: American education in the age of globalization. ASCD. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 89 Zhao, Y., Zhang, G., Yang, W., Kirkland, D., Han, X., & Zhang, J. (2008). A comparative study of educational research in China and the United States. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 28(1), 1-17. Zhou, W., & Li, G. (2015). Chinese language teachers' expectations and perceptions of American students' behavior: Exploring the nexus of cultural differences and classroom management. System, 49, 17-27. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 90 Appendix A: Questionnaire 1. Your education, major and school you graduated from _____. (optional fill-in) 2. Did you have any other teaching experience before you became a Chinese immersion teacher? If so, please list the start and end time, the company where you taught, and your position. 3. What is your current teaching level?  Kindergarten  Elementary school --Grade？_____  Middle school --Grade？_____  High school --Grade？_____  Other (please specify) 4. How many years of teaching experience do you have?  Less than 1 year  1-3 years  4-6 years  7-9 years  10 or more years 5. What language(s) do you teach?  Chinese only  Chinese and English  Other (please specify) 6. Have you received any training or professional development related to teaching in a Chinese immersion program in the United States?  Yes  No -- If no, in what areas do you think you need more support? _______ 7. How familiar are you with the special education laws and procedures in the United States?  Very familiar  Somewhat familiar  Not very familiar  Not familiar at all 8. Do you find it difficult to transition to the American school system?  Very difficult  Somewhat difficult  Not very difficult  Not difficult at all 9. What specific challenges have you faced while teaching in a Chinese immersion program in the United States? (Select all that apply)  Language barriers Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 91  Different perceptions and expectations of roles  Different teaching methods and styles  Classroom management  Inclusion of students with special needs  Cultural differences with students  Cultural differences with parents  Lack of training and support  Not enough resources or funding to purchase and maintain necessary materials  Lack of materials for diverse learners  Availability of appropriate materials  Other (please specify) 10. Please explain your choices - why do you consider these to be challenges? Can you provide some examples? How have you dealt with these challenges? 11. Have you received any assistance or training from your school or district to overcome the challenges you have faced?  Yes --Name of training or what type of help? ________  No 12. What kind of assistance do you need to overcome the challenges you have faced? (Select all that apply)  Professional development training  Classroom management resources and strategies  Teaching methods and style resources and strategies  Special education training and resources  Cultural sensitivity and awareness training  Other (please specify) 13. If you have received assistance or training, how effective was it in helping you overcome the challenges you have faced?  Very effective  Somewhat effective  Not very effective  Not effective at all 14. Would you be interested in participating in a professional development training program specifically designed for Chinese immersion teachers in the United States?  Yes  No 15. What kind of professional development or training would you like to receive in order to improve your teaching in a Chinese immersion program? 16. What topics would you like to be covered in a professional development training program specifically designed for Chinese immersion teachers in the United States? (Select all that apply) Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 92  Classroom management  Teaching methods and styles  Special education  Cultural sensitivity and awareness  Parent communication  Other (please specify) 17. How often would you like to participate in professional development training programs specifically designed for Chinese immersion teachers in the United States?  Once a year  Twice a year  Three times a year  Other (please specify) 18. In what ways do you think the cultural differences between China and the United States have affected your teaching experience?  Misunderstandings between students and teachers caused by different cultural norms and values.  Difficulty in adapting teaching strategies to the cultural background of students and parents.  Language barriers between teachers and parents who may not speak English or Chinese fluently.  Challenges in incorporating Chinese culture into the curriculum in a meaningful and appropriate way.  Need for more training and resources on cultural competency and sensitivity.  Please add some that are not above. _____________ 19. How effective do you think the Chinese Immersion program is?  Very Effective  Somewhat Effective  Neutral/Undecided  Somewhat Ineffective  Very Ineffective 20. Please explain your assessment -- provide more detailed feedback on your rating. 21. Which of the following do you think would be the factor in assessing the effectiveness of the course, please select the top three.  The academic performance of students in Chinese Immersion compared to non-immersion programs.  The level of fluency achieved by students in the Chinese language.  The cultural awareness and understanding gained by students through the Chinese Immersion program.  The ability of students to use Chinese language skills in real-life situations. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 93  The satisfaction of parents and students with the Chinese Immersion program.  The success of graduates of the Chinese Immersion program in college and career opportunities.  Other (please specify) 22. Have you experienced any issues with student behavior or discipline in your Chinese immersion classroom? If so, how have you addressed these issues? 23. How do you involve parents and families in the Chinese immersion program?  Parent-teacher conferences  Parent workshops and events in Chinese to learn about the immersion program  Creating a parent group that meets regularly to discuss immersion program topics  Providing resources in Chinese for parents to use at home with their children  Encouraging parents to use Chinese at home with their children  Inviting parents to participate in cultural events and celebrations  Other (please specify) ____________________ 24. What suggestions do you have for improving the Chinese immersion program in your school or district? 25. What support do you feel you need from your school or district to better serve your students?  More professional development opportunities  Increased access to resources and materials  More support with classroom management and student behavior  Additional support for students with special needs or English language learners in the immersion program  More time for planning and collaboration with other immersion teachers  Better communication with administration and parents  More opportunities for cultural and language immersion experiences for students  Other (please specify) ____________________ 26. Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience as a Chinese immersion teacher in the United States? 27. 27. Your last name, age and gender: _____. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 94 Appendix B: Informed Consent IRB STUDY #AY22-23-334 WEBER STATE UNIVERSITY INFORMED CONSENT Chinese Dual Language Immersion Teacher Challenges You are invited to participate in a research study of the challenges that teachers from China face when they are teaching in a dual language immersion class. You were selected as a possible subject because you are a Chinese Dual Language Immersion teacher. We ask that you read this form and ask any questions you may have before agreeing to be in the study. The study is being conducted by Dian Du and Ziqi Ling who are seeking master’s degree of Weber State University under the direction of Dr. Louise Moulding. STUDY PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to a) raise awareness about the challenges that Chinese dual language immersion (DLI) teachers face when working in the United States. b) identify specific areas of challenge that Chinese DLI teachers face, such as classroom management, communication with parents, and special education knowledge and skills. c) provide recommendations for how Chinese DLI teachers can be better supported in their work, such as through targeted professional development programs and increased cultural and linguistic support. NUMBER OF PEOPLE TAKING PART IN THE STUDY: If you agree to participate, you will be one of approximately 100 other subjects who will be participating in this research. PROCEDURES FOR THE STUDY: If you agree to be in the study, you will complete the following survey. RISKS OF TAKING PART IN THE STUDY: For this research, it includes the following risks: 1. Feeling overwhelmed or uncomfortable with the content of the questionnaire. 2. Disclosure of sensitive or personal information. 3. Inadvertent harm if the questionnaire includes triggering or traumatic content. 4. Time commitment required to complete the questionnaire. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 5. 95 Technical issues with accessing or completing the questionnaire. BENEFITS OF TAKING PART IN THE STUDY You will receive payment for taking part in this study. All those willing to participate in this questionnaire will receive an Amazon gift card in reward. This research may help improve the training and support they received by sharing these experiences. ALTERNATIVES TO TAKING PART IN THE STUDY: Instead of being in the study, you have the option to exit the survey. COSTS/ COMPENSATION FOR INJURY In the event of physical injury resulting from your participation in this research, necessary medical treatment will be provided to you and billed as part of your medical expenses. Costs not covered by your health care insurer will be your responsibility. Also, it is your responsibility to determine the extent of your health care coverage. There is no program in place for other monetary compensation for such injuries. However, you are not giving up any legal rights or benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. If you are participating in research which is not conducted at a medical facility, you will be responsible for seeking medical care and for the expenses associated with any care received. CONFIDENTIALITY Efforts will be made to keep your personal information confidential. We cannot guarantee absolute confidentiality. Your personal information may be disclosed if required by law. Your identity will be held in confidence in reports in which the study may be published. Organizations that may inspect and/or copy your research records for quality assurance and data analysis include groups such as the study investigator and his/her research associates, the Weber State University Institutional Review Board or its designees, the study sponsor, Dr. Louise Moulding, and (as allowed by law) state or federal agencies, specifically the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP). CONTACTS FOR QUESTIONS OR PROBLEMS For questions about the study, contact the researcher Dian Du at 385-326-5852 or the researcher’s mentor Dr. Louise Moulding at 801-626-7665 For questions about your rights as a research participant or to discuss problems, complaints or concerns about a research study, or to obtain information, or offer input, contact the Chair of the IRB Committee IRB@weber.edu. VOLUNTARY NATURE OF STUDY Taking part in this study is voluntary. You may choose not to take part or may leave the study at any time. Leaving the study will not result in any penalty or loss of benefits to which you are entitled. Your decision whether or not to participate in this study will not affect your current or future relations with Weber State University. Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 96 SUBJECT’S CONSENT In consideration of all of the above, I give my consent to participate in this research study. I will be given a copy of this informed consent document to keep for my records. take part in this study. I agree to Subject’s Printed Name: _______ Subject’s Signature:_____________________________________Date:________ (must be dated by the subject) Printed Name of Person Obtaining Consent: Signature of Person Obtaining Consent: _______ Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges 97 Appendix C: Participant Information: Educational and Teaching Background Participant ID P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 Educational background Years of teaching M.A. of Early >10 years Childhood Education (U.S) M.A. of International >10 years Chinese Education (U.S) B.A. of Early >10 years Childhood Education (U.S) / 4-6 years 4-6 years 7-9 years P8 / M.A. of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Language (China) M.A. of Teaching Chinese as a Second Language (China) / P9 B.S. in Math (China) >10 years P10 M.A. of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Language (China) 7-9 years P11 Master of Education (U.S) / / P7 P12 P13 Teaching experience before becoming a Chinese DLI teacher Taipei Taiwan, English teacher (Taught ESL) 08/2000- 06/2013 Tongda elementary school (China), English teacher 2003-2009 Granite school district, Kindergarten teacher for one year; Second grade and theater teacher for five years. Fordham University and Monclair State Universtiy, 1 year teaching experience No 2016- 2017 Thailand, Chinese language teacher 7-9 years 05/2014- 03/2017 Benchamaracharungsarit School (Thailand), Mandarin Teacher >10 years >10 years 08/2003- 08/2015 Lijiang Teachers College, English instructor and Mandarin teacher for overseas students on campus Zhengzhou No.47 High School, Math teacher, 06/2014- 05/2019 Beijing, Chinese Teacher 09/2019- 01/2020 Minzu University of China, Chinese Teacher (Chinese courses: Economic and trade Chinese reading) 05/2019- 07/2019 Beijing Shuangshi Orient Education Technology Co.Ltd, Chinese Teacher (Grade 4 - 6) China, College teacher 7-9 years 4-6 years 2016- 2018 ILtexas 2014- 2016 Thailand Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges P14 P15 P16 P17 P18 P19 P20 P21 P22 P23 P24 P25 P26 P27 P28 P29 P30 P31 98 Major of World Language in Secondary Education / M.A. of Esthetics (U.S) 4-6 years No >10 years >10 years M.A. of Art education (Japan) M.A. of Education (U.S) / / >10 years Yes Public school- High & Middle school, 13 years of teaching experience China, Art teacher / M.A. of Arts in Teaching (U.S) M.A. in Chinese (U.S) M.A. of Elementary Education (U.S) / >10 years 1-3 years M.A. of Education (U.S) / M.A. in Language Pedagogy (U.S) / M.A. of Education (U.S) 1-3 years No 2010- 2015 Jilin University Zhuhai College, Vice professor 2013- 2018 Langfang Jieshi Changsheng Co.,Ltd, Chinese teacher No 4-6 years 4-6 years Thailand, Chinese teacher 2014- 2017 Middle school, English teacher 7-9 years >10 years / 4-6 years No 09/1994- 06/2012 Zhenjiang University of Technology (China), teacher of undergraduate students No 4-6 years >10 years >10 years 7-9 years 4-6 years >10 years 2016- 2017 Phillpines; 2017- 2018 Korea high school Yes 2011 Waminwittaya School, Chinese teacher. 2010- 2013, Thailand 2019- 2022 Primary school, English teacher Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Appendix D: Responses to Open-ended Questions Survey Question 10: Have you received any assistance or training from your school or district to overcome the challenges you have faced? When I have a hard time with communication to my students, I was thinking it is because they are not respectful, or not serious enough about Chinese learning. However, after teaching for 2 years, I do not think the same way as I was. I think students have their own culture to build up their mentalities. They have their attitude towards things around them, but all of these phenomena are from their culture. (P2) Education is a focused but funding is always an issue. (P3) In the beginning, it’s not that easy to get used to the new language environment. (P5) For example, we don't have enough mice and headphones at school until the teacher applies and get fund from other places. For differentiation, the teacher has to prepare all the materials for our students. Especially for high levels. It is hard to find appropriate materials online. (P7) Teaching in another country is not an easy job in many ways. Teachers' prior experience can influence their expectations and teaching practice. Communication across cultures is a challenging part but would always be overlooked when planning professional development opportunities for teachers. (P8) Language barriers. In the beginning, the students' Chinese listening ability was very poor. As a teacher, I cannot speak English. Consistently teach important 99 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges vocabulary and allow students to practice using them in context with their own lives. (P9) Classroom management. I believe this must be the top priority among all teachers, especially for students in grades 6-7 who are in a sensitive period, that is, the transition from children to adolescents. Grades 6 and 7 have completely different expression states and management models, and must be analyzed on a case by case basis. (P10) Language barriers, just entered the United States, and the domestic study of English is very different, a lot of English communication will have a deviation in meaning, such as "ketchup" can not be said as "tomato sauce.” This can only be solved by continuous communication, exchange, and practice with colleagues, especially in the workplace English is more simple, many words are familiar, in many experiences are common, so there is no barrier to communication. (P10) The teaching style in the United States, such as encouraging teaching, task-based teaching, emphasizing participation, emphasizing different treatment of different students in teaching, and attaching great importance to teaching management, all of which need to be mastered in practical work. The cultural atmosphere of students varies. It is necessary to agree on clear management regulations and boundaries with students, and abide by them together. The most important thing is to have clear rewards and punishments, not give second chances, and comply with orders and prohibitions. (P10) At the very beginning, it is very hard because l was not familiar with the curriculum. But, gradually lot of English teachers start to share their resources. And it becomes easier and easier for me. (P12) 100 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Students are less motivated when they move up to the secondary level as they don't have enough language environment to practice Chinese. Make teaching more authentic. (P12) Classroom management rules are different in the US compared to China or other countries. But the reason behind this I think is cultural differences. (P13) I was born and grew up in a different country and have been taught and trained in different ways in terms of education. (P14) Everyone has different backgrounds and different cultures, teachers and students and their parents. Knowing different cultures will help people understand each other which is why cross-cultural communication is important. Respect and love are important. (P16) It is hard for me to be a native speaker of English. (P18) The cross-cultural differences could be the challenge, for example, transfer from teacher center method to student center method. My solution was to do classroom observations; attend workshops/training; keep practicing by myself. (P20) I was born and raised in China. The education systems are different. It’s hard for me to accept the educational concepts in a short time and then implement them in my class. (P21) For Chinese teachers, classroom management hardly exists, but in the United States, there is no stereotype like Chinese classrooms, so students need to be trained and managed so that they can better maintain the classroom, so these are very important for a novice teacher. The second aspect of the big challenge is about the setting of the curriculum. In the United States, the standards and 101 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges evaluation methods of the school’s examinations set by the Happy Project are prevailing. The Chinese teachers’ perspective is completely different, so teachers need to change their concepts and have a better idea. Understanding and adapting to American Chinese classrooms. (P23) For example, when teaching Science, there are very a few Chinese resources to use. The contents are not attractive and deep enough. (P24) The role of teachers in the United State and China are is different. Also classroom management would hard for new teachers. (P25) Each school year we only have 100 budget, so cannot buy a lot of things. My idea is to make reward systems and try to get help from parents. (P26) Students need to speak all Chinese in the Class, some of them are not good at Chinese so they cannot speak a lot. (P26) It is very challenging at the beginning to communicate with parents and collaborate with other English teachers or partner teachers due to cultural issues. However, training and support from school could be very useful! (P27) The program doesn’t provide enough resources. The workload of preparing for material development and lesson planning is heavy. (P28) Classroom management is a very wide national challenge, and I think it relates to the school culture and each teacher's teaching pedagogy. Sometimes, it's hard to motivate students to engage in class activities. One of my ways is to put their phone away! Organize their seats according to students learning hobbies and personalities. (P29) 102 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Online Mandarin curriculum accounts for students are pricy. Besides, it’s hard to find a Mandarin curriculum that has Chinese language arts, culture, math, and science all and is affordable at the same time. Teachers spent too much time doing teaching preps. (P30) Survey Question 19: Please explain your assessment -- provide more detailed feedback on your rating. I give assessments every other Friday. I usually use Canvas. Students are serious in the assessment. They want to have a good grade on each of my tests. (P2) Students need to use all language skills in different performance assignments to prove that they have mastered the listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in Chinese. My students have performed excellently in these areas. (P3) There is a paper test in Math academic assessment. There is an oral test in the Chinese Language Proficiency Assessment. The students have achieved good results in these tests. (P7) We see the program growing but also experiencing difficulties of losing students, especially in higher grade levels. Students and parents lack the motivation to stay in the program or continue with Mandarin learning after high school. This shows that the effect of the program is still somewhat lacking. (P8) Students can say some simple daily conversations. However, students also need to watch more videos to understand real China and Chinese culture, not just written or listening. (P9) 103 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges AAPPL and AP are the two main assessments we use. My students have achieved good results in both tests. (P11) Best way to learn a language. (P12) The immersion program is effective in certain places but not effective in all states and cities. (P14) Teacher's skill is very important. Under my leadership, the students have made significant progress. (P15) High level. (P16) From School Data ， We can see that the students' Chinese proficiency has significantly improved. (P17) My students performed very well in the oral test. (P19) Very effective for students to learn both target languages. (P20) Students are immersed in the Chinese-only learning environment. More inputs results in more outputs. (P21) Building positive relationships with students helps a lot. (P23) AAPPL test, my classes passed it 100％ two-year back to back. From this, it can be seen that Chinese immersion program is very effective. (P24) We have a reward system and sometimes we need to communicate with parents, special education teachers, and administrators to solve problems. The reward system has improved the Chinese level of students. (P25) 104 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Base on the rubrics to explain it. I think this is very effective. (P26) The content-driven model is effective for students' academic achievement, especially since most of the DLI students achieve higher academic scores, such as math or science, than non-immersion students. However, I don't think it is super effective for language proficiency itself, as we can tell Chinese learners are usually stuck at intermediate level. (P27) Based on what I have seen, it is hard for Chinese immersion kids to get to an advanced level. (P28) Currently, the Chinese Immersion program is very important for students who want to learn language and cultural knowledge! Generally, compared with the students who didn't join the immersion, those students who are in the immersion have fewer behavior problems and academic issues. (P29) The k-5 immersion students showed good Chinese language proficiency in all areas: reading, listening, speaking, and writing. (P30) Survey Question 22: How do you involve parents and families in the Chinese immersion program? Yes, I followed the guidelines of the Us school systems. (P1) I had some issues with students' behavior two years ago. I thought the reason for those issues are not all because of the students' bad attitude. It came from complicated reasons. I had to admit that part of the reason is that I was still learning how to teach secondary level class and handle the brand new curriculum. (P2) 105 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Not really. Unless the students have 504 then accommodations will be arranged. (P3) Students are very irritable in class, pushing desks and chairs, and refusing to study. First, communicate with the partner teacher. Then, organize parents meeting and understand the reason, because the parents are in the divorce period, so the student's mood is very unstable. Finally, make a plan with the parents and the partner teacher to help the student through this difficult time. (P7) Some students chat during class. Assign tasks to promote students' interest in learning. (P9) There are many problems. I will seek help from the vice principal, observe the classroom management of other teachers, and encourage students to help each other. (P10) Yes. Let the principal to help. However, the effect is not significant. Another teacher told me one year later, the students exited the immersion classroom. (P13) Yes. Positive enforcement.（P18） Yes, the student with autism. (P19) Yes. I used PBIS methods. (P20) It’s hard for certain students to follow the Chinese only rule. (P21) Build up positive relationships with students help a lot. (P23) Sure. It exists in every classroom. Be knowledgeable to understand my students. Meet their needs and help them be successful. (P24) 106 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Teachers who mentioned the "Reward system" believed that 'rewards' are a positive form of support. The following comments provide a detailed explanation of how teachers use the 'Reward system': We have reward system. (P25) Sometimes we need to communicate with parents, special education teachers and the administrators to solve problems. (P25) Report to the admin team. (P26) It happens in every classroom in the USA. Students misbehaving do break the class rules but I usually have a reward system to positively support students, and also consequences to warn them.（P27） Yes. I seek advice from other experienced teachers. (P28) Participate in classroom activities, stimulate learning motivation, give students more choices, and understand the reasons behind their inability to concentrate or participate! (P29) Survey Question 24: What support do you feel you need from your school or district to better serve your students? I think my only suggestion is to have more and more teachers collaborate with each other, and create more communication. (P2) 107 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Train teachers to use final goals as teaching guidance. Train teachers to see the importance of teamwork. Train teachers to assess students' language skills and fluency in different forms not just standardized tests. (P3) I hope there can be some guidance for students and parents on what are the benefits students will get after so many years of staying in the program. For example, a minor in Mandarin if they fulfill the requirements? I am eager to know that information to help my student’s parents to see the hope and meaning of staying with MI program. It will help to attract more students to MI as well. (P8) More Chinese Cultural Activities. (P9) More communication meetings can be added. (P10) Educate the parents. (P11) Have a state-wide competition in Chinese. (P12) Teaching cooperation. (P15) Need more platforms or resources for the students. (P17) More local teachers. (P19) Getting con with new publishers and adopting more resources. (P24) Teachers learn from each other. (P24) New teachers should have American cultural training to better adjust to the new teaching environment and the parents and local teachers should learn to be more open-minded to learn other cultures. All the other countries know American culture but most Americans hardly know other cultures. (P25) 108 Chinese DLI Teacher Challenges Probably inviting parents to be volunteers to be in charge of Christmas parties in the classroom. (P27) Provide more specific help for teachers like developing teacher materials. (P28) Survey Question 26: Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience as a Chinese immersion teacher in the United States? I need support to communicate cross cultures, on how to promote the MI program and guidance on how to help students get minors in Mandarin so students can be more motivated in learning the language. (P8) Communication, sharing-based learning, multiple activities, appropriate and strict requirements. (P9) I think if we could share all the resources as much as we can, it will be better for students and teachers. (P12) 109