Rebekah Richins 1 The American Cowboy: A Cultural Symbol‟s Reflection of the 20th Century American Dream Rebekah Richins MENG Master‟s Thesis Dr. Young 19 August 2010 Rebekah Richins 2 Preface For more than a century, Western cowboy myth has held a firm and unique place in the American psyche. Although its roots stem from actual events and people that exist in American nineteenth century history, fact and fiction start mingling somewhere near the beginning of the 1900s. It is at this point the myth takes on a life of its own. This paper represents an in-depth analysis and discussion of 20th century American cowboy myth and how, over time, it came to reinforce and reflect cultural expectations of success and the American Dream. This theme will be explored in two sections. Section I focuses on giving the audience a contextual base. Three major topics are discussed. The first chapter is an historical overview of the factual American West. The second chapter is concentrated on giving myth a specific definition for the sake of this discussion. And the final chapter focuses on describing and defining the American Dream. Ultimately, this section is necessary to contextually prepare and inform the audience for material presented in Section II. Section II, conversely, is fully focused on mapping evolutions in American cowboy myth and how those evolutions came to reflect and reinforce cultural expectations of success and the American Dream. The chapters of this section are presented chronologically and are categorized to underline the cultural and mythical changes that occurred over the course of the 20th century. In the end, this analysis proves, once and for all, the enormous influence and substantial role American cowboy myth has had on 20th century American culture as a whole. Rebekah Richins 3 Section I: Discussions of History and Definitions Rebekah Richins 4 Historical Overview: Fact vs. Myth In 1860, the American West was a vast expanse of undeveloped territory—only eight of the twenty-four future states west of the Mississippi had reached statehood. Just twelve years previously, Mexico released claims over its northern territories—California, New Mexico, and the independent Republic of Texas. By 1861, America engaged in its bloodiest war to date—The American Civil War (1861-1865). Before the Civil War ended, several thousand head of cattle scattered across the West. These cattle originated from ranches deserted during the war or abandoned earlier by Spanish, and later Mexican, expeditions. Nevertheless, “There wasn‟t much need for cowboys though, until a few enterprising Texans decided to add to their stock by rounding up all those stray, practically feral longhorn cattle, or mavericks” (George-Warren 11). Eventually, new herds were integrated with feral, land use was expanded, and subsequently, the American West became one wide “Open Range.” “Thus began the golden age of the cowboy. It lasted about twenty-five years [. . .] with a total of nine million cattle shipped to market after being driven by some forty thousand cowboys” (George-Warren 12). Surprisingly, in contrast to the early twentieth century‟s mythical archetype of the American cowboy—predominately presented as Anglo, English-speaking, rough-riding men—the more factual reflections of the American cowboy culture, starting in the mid to late nineteenth century, exhibited a great variety of races, tongues, peoples, and creeds. Spanish, Mexican, Native American, African American, and even unique regional cultures added different influences to the overall “umbrella” of the cowboy‟s history. It was these diverse influences that ultimately proved the twentieth century myth false in its Rebekah Richins 5 initial narrow presentation—the historical American cowboy culture consisted of more than one type of cowboy. To begin, “As far back as the late 1700s, Mexican cattlemen [. . .] brought skills for raising their horses, cattle, and livestock to Texas. With ranching traditions, gear, and clothing adapted from Spain, the vaquero was actually the predecessor of the American cowboy” (George-Warren 10). Perhaps the most important discovery was the vaquero‟s contribution to the American cowboy‟s language. Consider the following Mexican Spanish etymologies: Bronco—from the Spanish word for rough (“Bronco”) Buckaroo—anglicized version of vaquero (“Buckaroo”) Chaps—from the Spanish word chaparejos (“Chaps”) Corral—from the Spanish word corro, meaning circle or ring (“Corral”) Lasso—from the Spanish word lazo (“Lasso”) Lariat—from the Spanish phrase “the rope” or la reata (“Lariat”) Mustang—anglicized version of mesteño or “wild horse” (“Mustang”) Ranch—from the Spanish word rancho, meaning small farm (“Ranch”) Rodeo—directly adopted borrowing (“Rodeo”) This historical influence was significant because it represented substantial proof that the original language of the American cowboy was not exclusively English-based. Consequently, the perceptions of American cowboy history must allow a broader definition of cowboy to emerge. In addition to the much forgotten Mexican cultural transference, Native American participation in cowboy history was significantly more substantial than the banshee-like Rebekah Richins 6 “savage” illustrated in early twentieth century also at times disregarded or distorted in early twentieth century archetypal depictions. West of Everything author Jane Tompkins comments on these backward illustrations. “Indians are repressed in Westerns—there but not there…and when they do appear they are even more unreal…at least horses are not played by dogs, or cattle by goats. Fake scenery is more convincing than fake Indians are” (9). Despite these negative and false displays of Native American culture in mythology, in actuality, Native Americans were more than outside observers or a dying culture standing in the way of progress. In multiple ways they proved adaptable participants. “For Native cowboys throughout the Americas their traditional beliefs, practices, and especially their history impart an additional dimension to cowboy culture. For many there exists a special relationship with the animals with which they work [. . .], especially [with] the buffalo and the horse” (Barillargeon 2). Conceivably, this unique knowledge and interaction with nature and animals made the natives all the more adept at refining cowboy practices and infusing a smaller degree of their own customs into the American cowboy culture. Consequently, “[By] the nineteenth century, Indian cattle ranching fully emerged as a strategy to confront changing times. It became part of the tradition of many western Indian communities” (Iverson 14). In the end, history proved that many native tribes and individuals were not only participants but also full-fledge members of the cowboy culture. Another unrepresented ethnic group in the American cowboy myth was the African American. Though their contributing numbers were often disputed, there was no mistake of their presence in the American cowboy culture during the second half of the nineteenth century. After the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and the end of the Civil Rebekah Richins 7 War in 1865, African Americans, for the first time, were no longer subjected to the unjust laws enforcing masters upon them. Consequently, they were left free to participate, as well as many other cultures, in the cultivation of the American West. “The lives of the African American cowboys tell the story of skill and grit, as they did what was necessary to gain the trust and respect of those who controlled their destiny” (Massey xvi). Perhaps the biggest contribution the African American culture made to the history of the American cowboy was their legacy of determination to succeed. “Some say skill and the scarcity of labor counted more in the West, which may be true, but African American men and women earned respect the hard way—by becoming the very best at their work” (Massey xvi). Much like the Mexican and Native American cultures, African Americans were unmistakable and significant influences on American cowboy history and culture. The last culture to discuss is obscure enough that it might initially inspire association with ethnically derogatory implications. The origin of the term cracker cowboy, not surprisingly, had nothing to do with the pejorative term cracker. Cracker cowboys or “cow hunters” were a Floridian cowboy subculture named for their crack whip droving style. Because Florida was a densely thick jungle, it was not necessary for the cowboys to rope cattle to corrals: they drove them with the intimidating sound of a whip. The culture began at the same time as the “Open Range” years of the West. In the 1880s, artist and writer Fredric Remington came to Florida to study their culture. What he found on the glade prairies surprised him: There was none of the bilious fierceness and rearing plunge which I had associated with my friends out West, but as a fox-terrier is to a yellow cur, were these last. They had on about four dollars‟ worth of clothes between them, and Rebekah Richins 8 rode a McClellan [hornless] saddles, with saddle-bags, and guns tied on before. The only things they did which were conventional were to tie their ponies up by the head in brutal disregard, and then get drunk in about fifteen minutes. I could see that in this case, while some of the tail feathers were the same, they would easily classify as new birds. (Remington 339) In contrast to the rough-riding nature of the American cowboy myth, conceivably the Florida cracker’s most significant contributions to American cowboy history were their uniquely relaxed culture—a mixture of Southern agricultural poverty and contradicting savvy. They were living proof that not all cowboys—even white, English-speaking males—were made of the same material. In conclusion, it should be apparent that each culture—Mexican, Native American, African American, and even regional anomalies like the Cracker—contribute different facets to the American cowboy history. Ultimately, they proved the archetypal myth false in its restricted presentation of the cowboy as only an Anglo, English-speaking, and rough-riding culture. Rebekah Richins 9 Chapter Works Cited Baillargeon, Morgan and Leslie Heyman Tepper. Legends of Our Times: Native Cowboy Life. Hull: Canadian Museum of Civilization, 1998. Print. “Bronco.” Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. "Buckaroo." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. Carlson, Charlie and Mark Moran. Weird Florida. New York: Sterling Publishing, 2005. "Chaps." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. "Corral." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. George-Warren, Holly. How Hollywood Invented the West. Pleasantville: The Reader‟s Digest Association, 2002. Print. Iverson, Peter. When Indians Became Cowboys. Oklahoma City: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997. Print. "Lariat." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. "Lasso." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. Massey, Sara R. Black Cowboys of Texas. College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 2005. Print. "Mustang." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June Rebekah Richins 10 2009. Web. "Rancho." Webster's New World College Dictionary. Your Dictionary, 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. "Rodeo." Webster's New World College Dictionary. 2009 Your Dictionary. 4 June 2009. Web. Remington, Frederic. “Cracker Cowboys of Florida.” Harper’s Daily: Making of America Project. v.91 (1895): 339-345. Print. Tompkins, Jane. West of Everything. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Print. Rebekah Richins 11 The Mythos of American Cowboys In addition to discussing factual history of the American cowboy, it was necessary to consider what “myth” meant for the sake of this mapping. Though the contextual history and definitions for myth implied a vast number of possible meanings, as far as this study was concerned, the mythos of the American cowboy denoted a very specific type of character. Mythological cowboys possessed an unmistakable iconic appearance, a specialized selection of almost superhuman abilities, and a strict set of moral codes. Moreover, since the myth‟s creation over a century ago, each of these mythical characteristics has been represented in every medium—art, literature, film, television, and contemporary culture. Character attributes and mediums would be indistinguishably considered and analyzed for evidence of those specific appearances, abilities, and codes in order to achieve the most thorough mapping of myth‟s influences and paradoxical reflection of the American culture and its evolving perception of the American Dream in the 20th century. “The Bronco Buster” (Remington) Rebekah Richins 12 Conceivably, one of the earliest and most recognizable visual portrayals of the American cowboy myth was portrayed in Frederic Remington‟s 1895 sculpture “The Bronco Buster.” Remington, who spent most of his life capturing images of the waning historical “Open Range” cowboy culture of the mid to late nineteenth century, more or less based his sculpture on actual persons. Nevertheless, this particular example was stylized to capture the spirit of a working “bronco buster,” and therefore likely appealed to the contemporary culture of the time as an honest representation of all American cowboys. Consequently, whether this image was entirely reflective of actual historical culture or not, the mythological cowboy adopted its appearance. The cowboy of American legends wore hard canvas or denim slacks, chaps, boots—distinctive narrow, leather, and high-healed—spurs, a traditional often double-breasted collard shirt, a straw or wool-weave wide brimmed hat, and most notably, carried some version of a six-shooter revolver pistol or lever action rifle. Furthermore, during the earlier half of the twentieth century, cowboys were almost exclusively presented as ethnically white, tall, male, and physically fierce. All of these physical features were imperative to note, because although the decades of 20th century changed, the American cowboy‟s mythical appearance did not. In addition to appearance, another significant characteristic of mythological American cowboys were their almost superhuman abilities. Once again, take for example the image of the “The Bronco Buster.” It proved more than just a type for cowboy appearances—it also served as a strong example of the American cowboy‟s capacities. The bronco in the sculpture fully reared up, and its cowboy rider held onto the reins with one hand, while his other arm fully extended for balance. The rider‟s stance implied he Rebekah Richins 13 would never succumb to weakness, nor would he make a mistake. His determination would not waiver until this particular bronco was broken. Time and time again, cowboys in myth exhibited similar abilities. Another example of the mythical cowboy‟s super human abilities comes from the 1969 film Support Your Local Sheriff. In the beginning of the film, James Garner‟s character was attempting to procure the job as sheriff. In light of this situation, the town‟s people decided they wanted him to prove his ability to protect the town. Garner then asked one of the town‟s people to throw a small piece of metal into the air. Garner shot it, and it came down looking like a prefab washer. Still not believing he could shoot a hole into the center of a tiny flying piece of metal, they asked him to do it again. Every single time after, he successfully made a washer out of a thin piece of metal. This perfect shooting ability was another strong example of the superhuman capacities a mythical cowboy needed to display. Lastly, even later portrayals—like John Wayne‟s depiction of a dying cowboy in the 1976 Western The Shootist—exhibited supernatural talents. While teaching a younger character to shoot, Wayne (John Bernard Books in the film) was asked how he had been so successful as a killer. Wayne replied, “First thing is, that target wasn't shooting back at you. Second, most men at that last second will flinch; I won't (The Shootist). Most human beings have to flinch—it is human nature to self-preserve. But Wayne‟s character showed such skill, that he could turn the cool on with a hot situation presented itself. Although these are just a few brief examples, a pattern was easy to find—mythical American cowboys almost always exhibit super human abilities. Rebekah Richins 14 Finally, mythical cowboys lived by a code. Wayne‟s Shootist character made these sentiments known near the beginning of the film—“I won‟t be wronged. I won‟t be insulted. I won‟t be laid a hand on. I don‟t do these things to other people, and I require the same of them” (The Shootist). This code was not only the mythological cowboy‟s code of conduct, but it also determined how his moral compass worked. Most importantly, it helped the audience establish who the “Good Guys” were, so to speak. These moral code characteristics can even be found in Westerns made today. Take for example the scenario in the 2003 film Open Range. When a character name Button cheated in a game of cards with the film‟s hero, Charley Waite, the hero became angry enough to teach Button a lesson. [Charley kicks Button off his horse. Button falls into the river.] Button: What you do that for? Charley: [Beat] Cheatin‟ at cards. Button: I apologized to you for that. [to Boss] Eh, Boss? I apologized to him for that. Boss: Evidently, he ain‟t over it yet. (Open Range) This cowboy code of good and bad, right and wrong, was a distinctive characteristic of the mythological cowboy. It established who he was and what he was made of. In conclusion, these characteristics were important to note, because they were universal to almost all American cowboy mythos. By identifying them, it made mapping evolutions in the myth easier. The characteristics help to define what and who the mythical cowboy prototypes were and what they looked like. Rebekah Richins 15 Chapter Works Cited Open Range. Dir. Kevin Costner. Perf. Kevin Costner, Robert Duval, and Annette Bening. Touchstone, 2003. DVD. Remington, Frederic. “The Bronco Buster.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, 22 March 2009. 4 June 2009. Web. Support Your Local Sheriff. Dir. Burt Kennedy. Perf. James Gardner, Joan Hackett, and Walter Brennan. MGM, 1969. DVD. The Shootist. Dir. Don Seigal. Perf. John Wayne, Lauren Bacall, and Ron Howard. Paramount, 1976. DVD. Rebekah Richins 16 Connotations of “The American Dream” The Term “The American Dream” was coined by James Truslow Adams in his 1931 book The Epic of America, and soon after became a national household phrase. Nevertheless, the author‟s definition and the American representations of the concept in artistic mediums have often been incongruent. In granting this term full weight and meaning, it is necessary to consider its history, to briefly examine the inconsistencies between the initial definition and artistic representations of it, and ultimately decide how the term‟s connotations and definitions affect the mapping of the American cowboy‟s mythical reflections of it throughout the 20th century. Adams defined The American Dream as, “A dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position” (“The American Dream”). In short, Adams‟ concept of the American Dream came to represent, to a certain degree, America‟s definition of success. It also described in detail those who were deserving of it: male and female, rich or poor, black, white, red or yellow. If a person were willing to work hard, the America Dream could be attained. Nevertheless, as much as this “dream” described the possible success of any hard working, determined American, a large number of artistic presentations, especially during the early to middle portion of the twentieth century, illustrated the dream as something only accessible to the dominate race in America: Only white people were shown achieving it in the vast majority of mainstream films, literature, art, and popular culture. Furthermore, in addition to the exclusion of racial minorities, artistic representations also Rebekah Richins 17 excluded women from attaining examples of success outside of the “home and hearth.” The presentations of what a woman‟s success could be was almost entirely based on what “her man” could achieve, regardless of her propensities or capacities for success beyond home life. These polarized presentations were reflected and perpetuated until movements within American culture compelled American artists to make a change. In the end, this paper would become a mapping of evolutions in the American Dream and America‟s expectations of success. More specifically, it would chart how that dream was reflected and influenced by American cowboy myth. Ultimately, this exercise would prove the overall significance and effect Western cowboy myth would have on the American culture as a whole. Rebekah Richins 18 Chapter Work Cited “The American Dream.” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Aug. 2010. Web. 7 Aug. 2010. Rebekah Richins 19 Section II: Evolutions in Myth and Culture Rebekah Richins 20 The Virginian (1902): A Foundational Text for Twentieth Century Western Mythology Victoria Lamont wrote in her 2003 essay “History, Gender, and the Origins of the „Classic‟ Western”: “[The Virginian] has been recognized by scholars of the genre as the foundational text of twentieth century popular western mythology, in inspiring generations of novelists from Zane Grey to Louis L‟Amour, to reproduce Wister‟s paradigm in endless permutations” (150). The longevity of this book‟s appeal might best be attributed to the amalgamation of qualities the main character exhibited. First and foremost, the Virginian had, despite his cultural and monetary disadvantages, a comely and ruggedly handsome appearance. Secondly, his speech, though laconic, was both commanding and intelligent. Next, he was a man who lived by a strong code of ethics. And most importantly, no matter how desperate the situation or danger, the Virginian always proved himself more than capable of rising to the challenge. These character elements helped to shape the American concept of what a mythical cowboy should be, and ultimately, they came to reflect the requirements necessary to obtain the American Dream. To begin, Owen Wister bestowed upon the Virginian an appearance that proved to have lasting sex appeal. The Virginian‟s attire included the aforementioned iconic wardrobe of a wide brim hat, bandana, button-up long-sleeved flannel shirt, chaps, high-heeled riding boots, and a stoic expression. However, Wister‟s choice to paint his character with such garments infused something more appealing than the generic and lower class nature these clothes might initially imply. Wister wrote, “Since her [Molly Wood‟s] arrival, she had seen young men and old in plenty dressed thus. But worn by this man now standing by her door, they seemed to radiate romance” (101). In short, by Rebekah Richins 21 having the his sweetheart react in such a way to the Virginian‟s garb, Wister solidified the sex appeal of what would otherwise be considered uninspiring work attire. Consequently, this described look became the iconic costume of thousands of The Virginian‟s literary “posterity.” In addition to his attractive appearance, Wister also gave his Virginian the coveted ability to say the exact thing he wanted, at the exact time it would count most, without ever wasting one word of expression. This laconic but useful verbal trait helped the Virginian‟s overall appeal in a couple of different ways. First and foremost, it put him in a power position with his enemies. Take for example his first encounter with Trampas, the man who would eventually become his nemesis. The two were playing poker, and Trampas was losing. In his frustration and impatience with the Virginian, who was taking his time to decide his next move, Trampas said, “Your bet, you son-of-a———” (33). The Virginian, who had not said one word to Trampas up until this point, pulled his pistol, but does not aim it. “And with a voice as gentle as ever, the voice that sounded almost like a caress, but drawling a very little more than usual, so that there was almost a space between each word, he issued his orders to the man Trampas: „When you call me that, smile” (33). There was no unmanly blubbering, no long-winded speeches, or anything that would cause the Virginian to lose even one iota of face. Instead, in one sentence the Virginian effectively told Trampas to “shut up” and “watch his step.” The overall affect was not only persuasive, but somehow strangely attractive, because the Virginian was able to catch his enemy unaware and command obedience in an utterly satisfying manner. Rebekah Richins 22 Another example where his laconic nature proved useful was during the Virginian‟s courtship of Molly Wood. His initial advances were shot down, and Molly even told him outright, “I don‟t think I like you” (102). But in his usual terse fashion, which exuded a certain internal confidence, he said, “That‟s all square enough. You‟re goin‟ to love me before we get through” (102). He was determined to prove her wrong. Even when he did feel insecure about different aspects of their relationship, the Virginian wisely never shared more than his deep certainty that Molly was the woman for him. In the end, the Virginian‟s ability to laconically express himself—say what he meant to say at the exact moment he needed to say it—not only proved helpful for different situations, but added another facet to the Virginian‟s over all appeal as an American mythical hero prototype. The next appealing aspect of the Virginian‟s character had to do with his strong code of ethics. He exhibited this code in several significant ways. First, he genuinely believed in chivalry. Secondly, he had a strong sense of justice. These character traits added to the Virginian‟s appeal because they painted him as more than just a good looker or a smooth talker: they painted him as a true and noble hero. First, the Virginian‟s character was described as the following: “Here in flesh and blood was a truth which I had long believed in words, but never met before. The creature we call a gentleman lies deep in the hearts of thousands that are born without chance to master the outward graces of the type” (22). The gentlemanly attributes were really a discussion of the Virginian‟s innate sense of chivalry. The best illustration of this character trait could be found towards the beginning of the novel, when Molly became stranded in the middle of a river crossing. Despite the scene‟s service as a convenient Rebekah Richins 23 meetcute, the incident also illustrated the Virginian‟s attitude of helping those who could not help themselves. In other words, he would have helped anybody who was stranded in such a dangerous situation. Another illustration can be found in the Virginian‟s repeated attempts to save Pedro, Shorty‟s well-trained little horse, from the cruel and abusive master to whom Shorty was forced to sell him. Although, he was not successful in saving either Pedro or the weak-willed Shorty from their unhappy fates, he did everything he could to protect them, and when the time came, he avenged them. In addition to his strong belief in chivalry, the Virginian firmly believed in the law of justice. He was so committed to this code, that he hanged his own best friend, Steve, to preserve it. To the modern reader, this may seem illogical or heartless, but the Virginian‟s moral sensibilities answered to a higher sense of righteousness—Steve broke the law, and he had to pay for his actions. Consequently, the Virginian‟s decision to react stoically while participating in the death of Steve, illustrates the appealing and paradoxical virtue of “A man‟s gotta do what a man‟s gotta do.” The final appealing trait the Virginian exhibited was his ability to come off conqueror no matter how terrible the situation. Tompkins wrote in her 1992 book, West of Everything, “[The Virginian] belongs to a stronger breed identified with the men of the South and the West, who are uneducated, antireligious, agrarian, and populist” (142). She further described him as one who obviously subscribes to philosophies like, “let the best man win,” and “„real‟ men learn valuable skills like roping cattle, shooting pistols, riding horses, and bossing cattle hands,” instead of wasting time talking philosophy or scientific theory (142). However, as initially uncivilized as these interests made him sound, the time he invested in acquiring practical abilities also made him capable of living in the Rebekah Richins 24 harsh and isolated wilderness the West of mythology represents, however factual or false. The value he placed on practical skills, in fact helped him to succeed and stay in control of situations when others found themselves utterly incapable. His ultimately served to make his character all the more appealing. Tompkins continued: Near the end of Owen Wister‟s Virginian (1902), the hero shoots and kills an outlaw named Trampas in a main street duel that became the typical climax of Western movies for the rest of the next seventy-five years. Just before the shoot-out something happens that is equally central to the Western‟s subsequent popularity. The hero‟s sweetheart, Molly, declares that she won‟t marry him if he risks his life against Trampas, but he does anyway, and she takes him back. (131) It is with these somewhat cynical but fairly accurate words that Tompkins identified the most crucial plot points of every Western story since the inception of this book—the hero wins the girl, and there will be a show down. The proof of this pattern‟s ability to move audiences lies in the fact that this story is still being told. The characters names may change, the settings might be a little different, but ultimately this is the storyline that people want to read, see, and hear and that is why this novel has had such an indelible mark on the American concept of the mythical West: the Virginian was a hero that could succeed no matter what. In the end, The Virginian proved to be a foundational text, because it presented an undeniable and unique hero. His appeal was largely the result of his attractive appearance, laconic use of words, his code of ethics, and his ability to always win. These Rebekah Richins 25 traits stood the test of time and would ultimately reflect what America would expect from its Western mythology and what it meant to achieve the American dream. Rebekah Richins 26 Chapter Works Cited Lamont, Victoria. “History, Gender, and the Origins of the „Classic‟ Western.” Reading The Virginian in the New West. Eds. Melody Graulich and Stephen Tatum. Nebraska UP: Lincoln, 2003. 148-174. Print. Tompkins, Jane. West of Everything. Oxford UP: New York, 1992. 130-155. Print. Wister, Owen. The Virginian. New York: Random House, 1995. Print. Rebekah Richins 27 White and Male: The Evolutions of the Twentieth Century Mythological Cowboy Image Victoria Lamont spoke of the “endless permutations” (105) The Virginian inspired throughout the 20th century. However, with the late 1920s advent of talking film and the mid-century commodity of television, the characterization, iconic looks, and plotline of the novel began to swiftly move from the page and evolve in the new mediums. Numerous examples of adaptations were available. Nevertheless, the most compelling of these early mythical progressions were the onscreen cowboy personas of Gary Cooper, Gene Autry, Roy Rogers, and most importantly, John Wayne. These personas retained the early mythological western hero traits established by The Virginian, including requirements that the hero be both white and male. Nevertheless, with each rising star and character, new facets were added to the mythical cowboy‟s code of living, style of dress, and manners of behavior. In the end, these changes to the cowboy‟s image began to strongly enforce and paradoxically reflect America‟s cultural expectations of success and the kind of men it was perceived deserved it. To begin, the onscreen persona of Gary Cooper represented one of the earliest evolutions the mythical cowboy image would make in film. This was evident in two elements of the actor‟s work. First, he added a touch of sensitivity to traditional cowboy roles. Secondly, Cooper‟s sex appeal was often attributed to his delicate and refined appearance: a complete contrast to the Virginian‟s gruff appeal. Cooper‟s persona ultimately served to widen the definition of what a cowboy could be, and subsequently, what a successful man in America could be as well. Gary Cooper began working in film during the mid 1920s, and because of his somewhat seemly opposite background of living in both Montana and England for some Rebekah Richins 28 years as a teenager, he brought a different energy to the then popular cowboy roles. Often he would play his characters with a touch of ambivalence or with a strong vein of sensitivity. He avoided the harsh stoicism of cowboys from the page. In fact, one of his earliest roles was to play in the third film adaptation of The Virginian (1929). Louis Tanner said the following in his 2001 essay “Gary Cooper: Cowboy Actor, Gentleman”: “Cooper handled the role successfully because the script had changed the Virginian from the mature, supremely self-confident figure he had been in the novel into a bashful youngster trying to find himself (105). As result of this approach, Cooper added a softer more conscientious quality to the popular cowboy image. In addition to his softer side, Cooper‟s persona represented a different kind of outward image as well. Tanner wrote: “He had an ethereal beauty, emphasized by the standard makeup, that was more feminine than masculine. Some critics have since called his face “androgynous” and suggest that this ambiguity of sexual identity, perhaps even in his most “masculine” roles, gave each performance a submerged complexity that attributed to his extraordinary popularity and sex appeal” (103). Ultimately, Cooper‟s appearance proved that cowboy sex appeal could extend beyond a gruff exterior and rugged appearance: Successful men in America could be both beautiful and handsome. Another evolution in the popular cowboy image of the early 20th century came from the onscreen personas of Gene Autry and Roy Rogers. Throughout their respective careers—starting in the early 1930s and spanning to the late 1950s—the characteristics Rebekah Richins 29 and qualities these men embodied infused optimistic attitudes and Christian beliefs into the mythical cowboy icon. Consequently, these same qualities were instilled into the cultural concept of the American Dream. Ultimately, a successful American man was perceived as one who had faith in self, God, and country. The next set of personas entered pop culture during the 1930s, another tumultuous time in America‟s history. The United States was still in the midst of the Great Depression and witnessing catastrophic political changes in Europe and Asia. The general outlook of most Americans at the time was a feeling of great ambivalence and fear. Perhaps this was why Gene Autry‟s happy-go-lucky “Singing Cowboy” image became so successful and popular with the American public. Ray Merlock and Jack Nachbar wrote in their 2001 essay “Gene Autry: Songs, Sidekicks, and Machines”: “By standing between these two time periods, and by heroically triumphing in movie after movie, he [Autry] suggested to scared Depression audience and, later, to nervous postwar moviegoers, that they did not have to fear the cultural and technological changes” (45). Through Autry‟s image, the mythical cowboy became a symbol of patriotic and social optimism. Furthermore, when Autry eventually enlisted in the military efforts of World War II, another popular talent stood in his place: Roy Rogers. Raymond White wrote in his 2001 essay “Roy Rogers and Dale Evans: King and Queen of the West”: “Perhaps one could not change his or her immediate economic or employment status or do much about the horrors of World War II, but in the darkness of the local theater, Roy Rogers could solve society‟s problems in about one hour” (27). Both Autry and Rogers became Rebekah Richins 30 symbols of hope and examples of how the mythical image of the cowboy came to reflect and influence the American people‟s concept of success. Additionally, as America emerged out of the devastation of World War II, the country began to look for stabilizing cultural constructs. There was a strong national desire to return to more conservative values. Consequently, in addition to qualities like patriotism and optimism being incorporated into the mythical cowboy image, as the decades post World War II carried on, the Godless hero of The Virginian was replaced with a new kind of cowboy. Instead of upholding a traditional code of chivalry, the cowboy image began to reflect a strong Christian code of ethics. White wrote, “Rogers and Evan‟s [his wife] meshed Christian beliefs with their interpretations of the historical and mythical American West. Combining family and Christian values with Western adventure struck a responsive cord among Americans during the 1950s” (21). As a result of this influence, the mythical cowboy image upheld by the onscreen personas of Autry and Rogers once again came to reflect and influence the American people‟s concept of success. Nevertheless, as important and influential as Cooper, Autry, and Rogers‟ personas were to the expansion of the mythological cowboy‟s image and its subsequent effects on and reflections of the cultural concept of the American Dream, arguably the most important persona in the history of American cowboy myth was that of John Wayne. His career started in the early 1930s, playing parts not too far from the roles that would later make Autry and Rogers famous. However, Holly George-Warren wrote in her book How Hollywood Invented the West (2002), “John Wayne was tapped to play Singin‟ Sandy Saunder. But years later his wife, Pilar, told reporters that the role made her embarrassed Rebekah Richins 31 husband feel like a „pansy‟” (76). In truth, more than any other quality mentioned, John Wayne represented the American cultural paragon of masculinity. Wayne once said: I made up my mind that I was going to play a real man to the best of my ability. I felt many Western stars of the ‟20s and ‟30s were too goddamn perfect. They never drank or smoked. They never wanted to go to bed with a beautiful girl. They never had a fight....They were too goddamn sweet and pure to be dirty fighters. Well, I wanted to be a dirty fighter if that was the only way to fight back….I was trying to play a man who gets dirty, who sweats sometimes, who enjoys really kissing a gal he likes, who gets angry, who fights clean whenever possible but will fight dirty if he has to. You could say I made the Western hero a roughneck (George-Warren 144). The power of Wayne‟s cultural influence was far-reaching and easily identified. While reminiscing on his 1950s childhood, Pulitzer Prize winning film critic Roger Ebert wrote in his 2009 essay “Shall We Gather at the River”: “When I was a kid, we said it as one word: Johnwayne. Like Marilynmonroe. His name was shorthand for heroism. All of his movies could have been titled Walking Tall. Yet he wasn't a cruel and violent action hero. He was almost always a man doing his duty” (Ebert). These qualities represented what America came to expect not only from its famous mythological cowboy heroes, but changed their definition of what a successful man should be in America. John Wayne was more than just an icon: Ultimately, he changed the way the entire country thought about success, heroes, and masculinity. Rebekah Richins 32 In conclusion, each of these early popular cowboy personas had a powerful impact on the evolution of the American cowboy image. Through the early decades of the twentieth century Cooper, Autry, Rogers, and Wayne, embodied a different kind of cowboy than the one found in early century‟s dime novels. These personas were not static, one-dimensional characters, whose authors were more concerned with selling a product than an ideal. They were intriguing and intelligent, and they represented a new kind of role model. More importantly, as the definition of the Mythological cowboy began to evolve, it became easier to see the full impact of the image on the American culture as a whole. Ultimately, the image began to strongly enforce and paradoxically reflect America‟s cultural expectations of success and the type of men who would achieve it. Rebekah Richins 33 Chapter Works Cited Ebert, Roger. “Shall We Gather at the River?” Roger Ebert’s Journal. 9 June 2009. Chicago Sun-times. 24 June 2010. Web. George-Warren, Holly. How Hollywood Invented the Wild West. Pleasantville, New York: Reader‟s Digest, 2002. Print. Lamont, Victoria. “History, Gender, and the Origins of the „Classic‟ Western.” Reading The Virginian in the New West. Eds. Melody Graulich and Stephen Tatum. Nebraska UP: Lincoln, 2003. 148-174. Print. Merlock, Ray and Jack Nachbar. “Gene Autry: Songs, Sidekicks, and Machines.” The Hollywood West: Lives of Film Legends Who Shaped It. Eds. Richard W. Etulain and Glenda Riley. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing, 2001. 44-62. Print. Tanner, Louis. “Gary Cooper: Cowboy, Actor, Gentleman.” The Hollywood West: Lives of Film Legends Who Shaped It. Eds. Richard W. Etulain and Glenda Riley. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing, 2001. 100-120. Print. The Virginian. Dir. Victor Fleming. Pert. Gary Cooper and Mary Brian, Paramount, 1929. DVD. Wister, Owen. The Virginian. New York: Random House, 1995. Print. White, Raymond. “Roy Rogers and Dale Evans: King and Queen of the West.” The Hollywood West: Lives of Film Legends Who Shaped It. Eds. Richard W. Etulain and Glenda Riley. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing, 2001. 20-43. Print. Rebekah Richins 34 Feminine Evolution: American Cowboy Myth Incorporates Women Up until the early 1940s, women did not play an especially prominent role in twentieth century cowboy mythology. There were the occasional thinking and conscientious heroines like The Virginian’s Molly Wood, but their appearance in popular culture was an anomaly rather than a standard or accepted norm. For the most part, women in Westerns of all mediums were presented as victims for male driven dramatic plots. This changed however, with the onset of World War II. With every able-bodied man drafted into military service, women went to the factories, and characters like Rosie the Riveter became popular icons of feminine capability. Consequently, an abrupt shift occurred in cultural definitions of what it meant to be a successful woman in America. As a result, the popular Western genre began reflecting and influencing this change in significant ways. The first introductions of these changes in popular Western mythology were not subtle in the least. Characters were created with the very minimal infusion of traditional feminine traits. In many cases, a man could just as easily have substituted to play a large number of 1940s to mid-1950s female Western roles. The characters were written with broad strokes of rough and raw personalities, strong penchants for leadership, crafty and resourceful qualities, and even at times, the very antithesis of feminine motherhood: They were written as childless and severe, with masculine appearances. Three popular contemporary and postwar films served as strong examples of this American cultural shift: Arizona (1940), Calamity Jane (1953), and Johnny Guitar (1954). Each film in no uncertain terms reflected and served to reinforce the emerging cultural changes of what it meant to be a successful woman in American. Furthermore, the cultural changes Rebekah Richins 35 ultimately caused the mythological cowboy image to evolve and incorporate women as well as men. To begin, 1940‟s Arizona, starred Jean Arthur as an enterprising and resourceful entrepreneurial cowgirl named Phoebe Titus. Phoebe represented perhaps one of the earliest and most powerful examples of a woman seeking after and attaining the American Dream through avenues traditionally thought of as being exclusively male in both American culture and the American cowboy myth. Along with different prospectors, homesteaders, and cattlemen moving into the seemingly godforsaken desert and mountainous region of the pre-Civil War titled Arizona Territory, Phoebe found success, wealth, and love by owning her own successful freighting business, riding her trusty steed, and all the while wearing pants, a six-shooter, and a steely gaze. In fact, the first time Phoebe met her husband, Peter Muncie (William Holden), the exchange between them put full light on her attitude towards being treated differently because of her sex. Jean Arthur as Phoebe Titus in Arizona (“Jean Arthur”) Rebekah Richins 36 Peter: Where I come from, women need protecting. Phoebe: I don‟t ask nor get favors for being what I was born. Peter: I found that out. You couldn‟t afford to be a woman. Phoebe: Eat your pie. (Arizona) In the end, Arizona served as powerful evidence that cultural attitudes were evolving and subsequently, so was the American cowboy myth. Calamity Jane (1953) was another strong example of this stark change in culture and myth. However, in contrast to Arizona‟s seemingly well-adjusted masculine heroine, Calamity Jane focused on the emotional ambivalence caused by being a capable woman living in a man‟s world. Initially, Calamity (Doris Day) found her talents with horses and guns gave her respect among her male peers of Dead Wood, South Dakota and throughout the Wild West. But she soon discovered that her appearance and abilities often got in the way of her love life. In fact, the meetcute with her future friend and romantic rival Katie Brown (Allyn Anne McLerie) became both a comical and depressing experience, because Katie mistook Calamity for a man. Katie: Oh, I‟m sorry. But those clothes. The gun and everything. Calamity: Reckon I do look a mite strange to a lady like you. Guess I ain‟t much to look at. But there ain‟t a woman in the world I can‟t outride or outshoot. [Beat as she looks down at her shabby appearance in a mirror.] Well…not everyone can have a figure like Adelaide Adams. (Calamity Jane) As the film progressed, her androgynous appearance and traditionally masculine Rebekah Richins 37 Doris Day as Calamity Jane (“Photos from Calamity Jane 1953”) skills continued to cause Calamity distress. Even the man with whom she took a shine—a pretty-faced lieutenant—began to show interest in Katie‟s more genteel manners and feminine appearance. In time, and with great reservation on Katie‟s part, the lieutenant and Katie paired off. In her hurt and confusion, Calamity then challenged Katie to a duel: an act that only served as further evidence of her sexually incongruent nature and talents. Thankfully, before she was able to do any real damage, her best friend Wild Bill Hickok (Howard Keel), who was never far away from the situation, stopped her from saying or doing something she might really regret. Soon after, Bill took her aside and proceeded to give her the lecture of her life. He started out by saying: “You sit down and listen. You‟re a fake Calam. Ya dress, talk, and ride like a man, but you think like a female” (Calamity Jane). Nevertheless, after the lecture was finished, he declared that he always loved Calamity, and he thought her skills Rebekah Richins 38 and abilities provided a challenge for his rough and rowdy nature. Because of this specific shift in the plot, the movie‟s final message served to enforce the great value of a woman blessed with gifts and attitudes more akin to a man‟s. It was difficult to imagine a film celebrating a woman‟s ability to perform well in traditionally masculine roles and appearance, before this post-WWII cultural and mythical evolution. Ultimately, Calamity Jane served as further evidence these changes were reflecting and paradoxically changing American society‟s definition of what it meant to be a successful woman. The last film to discuss was Johnny Guitar (1954). This story focused on a saloon and casino owner named Vienna (Joan Crawford), who was trying to arrange for a new railroad system to be built through her location in the territory. Nevertheless, a nearby town, lead by a cattle baron named Emma (Mercedes McCambridge), was opposed to this scheme, because it would ultimately shut their cattle business and town down. Consequently, Emma and a posse show up at Vienna‟s saloon to tell her she and her crew have twenty-four hours to get out of town. Of the three, this film represented the most radical example of cultural and mythical change. In previous decades, women played only a handful of roles: wife, mother, teacher, occasional Indian guide, or whore. Additionally, they were almost always presented as weaklings or victims. This picture discarded these types entirely. In fact, one of its loudest messages seemed to be: “Women are not only as powerful as men, they are more so.” This theme was illustrated in several ways. First, the male roles in the film were diminished considerably. Film Critic Roger Ebert observed, “Has a Western ever been more casual about its male leads? Johnny Guitar is about hatred between Rebekah Richins 39 Vienna and Emma, and Sterling Hayden [the man who plays Johnny] seems to know it” (Ebert). Furthermore, both Vienna and Emma were made the leaders of each respective posse, and it was their decisions that were obeyed. In fact, at one point, one of Vienna‟s employees said, “I never met a woman who was more man” (Johnny Guitar). Perhaps the strongest illustration of this was the film‟s all-female showdown finale. Vienna: Down there I sell whiskey and cards. All you can buy up these stairs is a bullet in the head. Now which do you want? Emma: I‟m going to kill you. Vienna: I know. If I don‟t kill you first. [Beat] The two women stare each other down. (Johnny Guitar) Joan Crawford as Vienna in Johnny Guitar (“Photos from Johnny Guitar 1954”) Ultimately, Johnny Guitar, just as Arizona and Calamity Jane had, served to reinforce and paradoxically reflect the new American concept of female success. In conclusion, each of these films served to help broaden the American concept of cowboy myth. Women were no longer required to remain in submissive and thankless Rebekah Richins 40 victim roles. Additionally, and in contradiction, these roles also served to help reinforce new cultural perceptions of the American Dream. White men were no longer the only characters who could attain the highest levels of success in America. Rebekah Richins 41 Chapter Works Cited Arizona. Dir. Wesley Ruggles. Perf. Jean Arthur and William Hulden. 1940. DVD. Calamity Jane. Dir. David Butler. Perf. Doris Day and Howard Keel. 1953. DVD. “Jean Arthur.” Dr. Macro’s High Quality Movie Scans. 2010. Web. 9 July 2010. Ebert, Roger. “Johnny Guitar.” Film Review. 8 May 2008. Chicago Sun-times. 29 June 2010. Web. Johnny Guitar. Dir. Nicholas Ray. Perf. Joan Crawford, Sterling Hayden, Mercedes McCambridge. 1954. VHS. “Photos from Calamity Jane (1953).” The Internet Movie Data Base (IMDb). 1990-2010. Web. 9 July 2010. “Photos from Johnny Guitar (1954).” The Internet Movie Data Base (IMDb). 1990-2010. Web. 9 July 2010. Rebekah Richins 42 Realism and Antiheroes: Reflections of America‟s Cultural Disillusionment The years between 1950 and 1975 represented one of the most politically charged and culturally dynamic periods in U.S. History. From 1950 to 1953, the United States Armed Forces served in the Korean War. And a little more than a decade later, between 1965 and 1975, American men were drafted by lottery into Vietnam. The national ambivalence towards U.S. involvement in these foreign wars, in addition to the social changes brought on by the civil rights movement, the sexual revolution, and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), served to foster great feelings of cultural disillusionment. Consequently, traditional values, politics, roles, and definitions were brought into question. American cowboy myth and, to a much larger degree, perceptions of the American Dream were among the traditional concepts subjected to scrutiny. Americans grew tired of generic Western heroes, whose success came easily, and who usually fought for whatever side represented the proverbial establishment. In lieu of cute, happily ever after endings with saccharin-sweet, static characters, American audiences began to demand new levels of realism in their storylines. As a result, Westerns started to include higher degrees of duality, poignancy, tangibility, and in some instances, graphic violence. Furthermore, heroes exhibited more complex personalities that no longer fit the wholesome and traditionally accepted definitions for heroic protagonist. Consequently, Western heroes, in many instances, evolved into antiheroes. Three films from this particular time period served as strong manifestations of America‟s evolving and restless culture: The Searchers (1956), Hombre (1967), and Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970). Each demonstrated unequivocal reflections and Rebekah Richins 43 reinforcement of America‟s new expectations, and consequently served to help revolutionize American cowboy myth and its heroes. In the end, Westerns would develop into illustrations of reality‟s severity and demonstrate the difficulty involved with achieving the elusive success of the American Dream. One of the first epic Westerns to exhibit a protagonist with a strong vein of duality was John Ford‟s The Searchers (1956). This film told the story of Ethan Edwards (John Wayne), a former Confederate soldier who returned to Texas after the end of the Civil War. Shortly after his homecoming, however, Ethan‟s entire extended family, with exception of an adopted adolescent nephew, Martin Pawley (Jeffrey Hunter), and a young niece, Debbie (Natalie Wood), were killed in an Indian raid. Ethan and Martin, who had been away helping a neighbor at the time of the attack, discovered a group of Comanche lead by a chief named Scar were responsible for their family‟s death and for the abduction of Debbie. Eager to help find his sister, young Martin begged permission to accompany Ethan in his search for the band. At first, Ethan‟s prejudiced against Martin‟s one-eighth Comanche heritage made him highly reluctant. Nevertheless, in need of help for his journey, he begrudgingly relented on the condition that Martin unquestioningly followed his orders. The search eventually became a painstakingly slow process, taking Ethan and Martin all over the American Western region. More than once they were forced to go back, starting from the homestead and working their way out again. Nevertheless, Ethan‟s obsessive perseverance drove them onward. Rebekah Richins 44 Ethan: Our turnin‟ back don‟t mean nothin‟. Not in the long run. She‟s alive. She‟s safe…for a while. They‟ll keep her to raise her as one of their own till…until she‟s of an age to…. Martin: Don‟t you think there‟s a chance we still might find her? Ethan: Injun will chase a thing till he thinks he‟s chased it enough. Then he quits. Same way when he runs. Seems like he never learns there‟s such a thing as a critter that‟ll just keep comin‟ on. So we‟ll find „em in the end, I promise you. We‟ll find „em. Just as sure as the turning of the earth. (The Searchers). As these years of fanatical searching stretched longer and longer, it became clear to Martin that Ethan‟s compulsion to find Debbie was no longer in an effort to find and save her. Instead, Ethan was driven by hatred so strong for Indians that he intended to kill Debbie, because he knew she would eventually assimilate with the Comanche band. He could not accept that she might be married to a Comanche man: He would rather see her dead. With this knowledge, Martin persevered onward, sacrificing years of his life and putting off his own marriage, in an effort to stop Ethan from killing Debbie once they found her. In the end, The Searchers represented a new kind of Western, because it fulfilled and reinforced two aspects of the emerging American cultural expectations. First, this film made it clear that Western protagonists were evolving into creatures of duality: They were no longer perfectly good and noble; they now had a darker side. Film critic Roger Ebert expressed ambivalence in reaction to this change: “Ford knew that his hero‟s hatred of Indians was wrong, but his glorification of Ethan‟s search invites admiration for a Rebekah Richins 45 twisted man. Defenders of the film point to he famous scene where Ethan embraces his niece instead of killing her. Can one shot redeem a film?” (Ebert, “Review of The Searchers”). In addition to its evolved hero, The Searchers also served as a more realistic example of how difficult it was to keep a family together and alive on the American frontier. Prosperity was constantly challenged by weather, terrain, and indigenous people trying to retain their own way of life. Ultimately, The Searchers served as proof that American cowboy myth was evolving in order to meet America‟s cultural desire for realism in entertainment and myth. Another film from this time period containing an untraditional and complex hero was Hombre (1967), starring Paul Newman and Fredrick March. Hombre told the story of an Apache-raised white man named John Russell (Paul Newman). At the film‟s beginning, Russell learned his estranged father died and left him a rickety boardinghouse and a gold watch. Upon receiving this information, Russell reluctantly decided to return to a town of white people in order to collect his inheritance. Shortly after he arrived and inspected his property, Russell determined he would sell the house in order to buy a herd of horses. This was a difficult blow for the seasoned but spirited caretaker of the house, Jessie. Nevertheless, seeing no sense in staying in town, Jessie bought a ticket to leave on the stage. Six others would ride with her: Indian agent Professor Alexander Favor (Fredrick March), his aristocratic wife Audra, a crude and shady drifter named Cicero Grimes, unhappily married former boarders, Billy Lee and Doris, and ironically, Russell, himself. However, when Mrs. Favor discovered Russell was raised Apache, Russell was asked to ride up top with driver for the entire ride. Rebekah Richins 46 Nearly halfway through the journey, the stagecoach was subjected to a holdup by a gang led by Grimes. Grimes knew that Dr. Favor was carrying money he stole from the very Apaches whom Russell grew up with. Grimes rode off, but took Mrs. Favor with him as insurance. In the mean time, Russell managed to shoot two of the outlaws, including Jessie's ex-lover, sheriff-gone-bad Frank. Russell also reclaimed the stolen money. At this point, the tables turned in Russell‟s favor: The bigots he rode with now needed his help. Nevertheless, Russell's survivalist instincts clashed with their naive and “civilized” attitudes towards others, especially when Grimes and his remaining gang offered to trade Mrs. Favor for the money. The group‟s pity for Mrs. Favor's situation eventually outweighed Russell's personal dislike for her and the knowledge that Grimes was using her to bait a trap. Russell eventually volunteers to help Mrs. Favor, because there was no one else capable enough to possibly survive the exchange of money. Before facing Grimes, however, Russell gave the money to Billy Lee, asking him to take it back to the Indians from whom it was stolen. The climax came when Russell pretended to give the money to Grimes and a gunfight ensued. Russell was able to kill Grimes and save Mrs. Favor‟s life, but immediately afterward, a surviving member of the gang shot Russell, fatally wounding him. Hombre represented an important contribution to American cowboy myth during this time frame for several substantial reasons. First, its hero was not only complex, but he also symbolized a further evolution in Western heroes. Ebert wrote, “In the early 1950s, a new breed of anti-hero started to develop. He didn‟t want your sympathy or Rebekah Richins 47 understanding. In fact, he despised social workers, and audiences who thought like social workers” (Ebert “Cool Hand Luke” Review). Russell was this kind of hero. Contrary to traditional Western types, Russell was not a likeable guy by any stretch of the imagination. Jessie was made homeless because of him. He was also willing to let Mr. Favor wander around in the desert to suffer and die instead of shooting him, after he discovered Favor had taken money from the Apache people. And when there was a possibility the entire group might die without his aid, Russell nearly decided to abandon them. Only after Jessie convinced him that human life, no matter how despicable, is valuable did he decide to help in their predicaments of first survival, then saving Mrs. Favor. Another important aspect of Russell‟s character was his Apache heritage. Rarely before this time did the white male hero choose to side with the “Savage Injuns.” Not only did Russell side with them; he became one of them. In the end, these aspects of Hombre served to illustrate American cowboy myth was evolving in order to meet American publics demand for more realistic and complex characters. The last film discussed here is Two Mules for Sister Sara (1970). Two Mules told the story of a drifter named Hogan (Clint Eastwood), who stumbled across a possible gang rape in the desert. In order to save the woman, Sara (Shirley MacLaine), he shot and killed her attackers. He later learned Sara was a nun that worked with a group of Mexican revolutionaries who were trying to expel the French occupying army. Hogan agreed to take Sara to a Mexican Commander Colonel Beltran‟s camp, because he had already arranged to help the Mexican revolutionaries attack the French garrison, in exchange for a portion of the garrison's strongbox. Rebekah Richins 48 As the duo head toward the camp, Sara surprised Hogan with her unorthodox behavior, such as smoking his cigars and drinking his whiskey. Later when Hogan attempted to detonate a charge to destroy a French ammunition train, Indians shot him for trespassing. Sara was not only able to bandage him but had to assist him in the process of placing charges and detonating them due to his injury. Eventually, the two arrived at Juarista, Commander Colonel Beltran's camp, where Sara explained the layout of the French garrison. Before the battle begins, Sara revealed to Hogan that she was not a nun, but actually a prostitute. She dressed as a nun in order to keep from being recognized and receive protection on her way back to Juarista. Hogan, at first enraged, then showed relief, as he had fallen in love with her, and earnestly meant to help her keep her vows. After they successfully take the Garrison, Hogan and Sara ride off into the sunset. Only this time, Sara was appropriately dressed as a madam. In several significant ways Two Mules for Sister Sara illustrated evolutions in American cowboy myth during this time period. First, Hogan represented an additional example of an antihero persona. Not only was he a professional mercenary, but his propensity for taking care of himself and only himself was the antithesis of traditional heroic characteristics. Furthermore, his actions were unquestionably more rash and violent than his heroic predecessors. On several occasions his instinct was to shoot first and ask questions later, which led more than one scene of realistic violence with a gun. Lastly, his idea of success showed little resemblance with the home, hearth, and family scenario of earlier storylines: Hogan‟s idea of the American Dream included owning his Rebekah Richins 49 very own casino in San Francisco and keeping the company of women with questionable virtue. All and all, Hogan illustrated the changes in America‟s expectations. Additionally, the character of Sister Sara infused another strong element of realism into this film. In the factual West, women were scarce, and had only a handful of restricted and submissive roles to play: teacher, Indian guide, harlot, or religious figure. In reality, being a professional whore would not have provided Sara with much protection, as was fairly evident when she was nearly gang raped in the desert. Consequently, her disguise as a nun was therefore a more clever and practical decision than it would initially be considered. By taking advantage of stereotypes, Sara turned those very types on their head. All and all, Two Mules for Sister Sara was another fine example of changes in the Western genre as a whole. In conclusion, evidence in each of these films represented a dramatic shift in American cowboy myth in the twentieth century. In accordance with America‟s new expectations and drastic evolutions in the culture, Westerns began to enforce and paradoxically reflect America‟s attitudes towards success, definitions of what it meant to be a hero, and requirements of realism in modern day myth. Rebekah Richins 50 Chapter Works Cited Hombre. Dir. Martin Ritt. Perf. Paul Newman, Fredrick March, and Richard Boone. 20th Century Fox, 1967. DVD. Ebert, Roger. “Film Review of Cool Hand Luke.” 3 Dec. 1967. Chicago Sun-times. 21 July 2010. Web. Ebert, Roger. “Film Review of The Searchers.” 25 Nov. 2001. Chicago Sun-times. 20 July 2010. Web. The Searchers. Dir. John Ford. Perf. John Wayne, Jeffrey Hunter, Natalie Wood, and Vera Miles. Warner Brothers, 1956. DVD. Two Mules for Sister Sara. Dir. Don Seigel. Perf. Clint Eastwood and Shirley MacLaine. Universal, 1970. DVD. Rebekah Richins 51 Minority Voices in American Cowboy Myth Although more complex characters and realism were introduced to American cowboy myth during the 1950s through the 1970s, the influence of ever-increasing cultural extremes eventually caused the genre to evolve into something unrecognizable. By the mid-1970s, violent Spaghetti Westerns, with caustic and aimless anti-heroes, became standard features in American pop culture. And while their heroes wore Western clothing, rode horses, and carried six-shooters, these types of stories seemed more indicative of cultural disenchantment and America‟s new demand for shock-value than reflections of traditional Western myth. In the end, these evolutions caused the entire Western genre to fall into a lengthy lull of popularity. It was not until the last decade of the 20th century that American cowboy myth made a full resurgence to popular culture. The Westerns of the 1990s, however, represented a revolutionary shift in the genre. American cowboy myth had always included illustrations of the American cultural struggle for success in the unsettled mythical and factual Wild West, but it rarely discussed those efforts from the viewpoint of the equally significant, coexisting minority cultures. Heretofore, that subject matter was largely unexplored or blatantly ignored. Nevertheless, by 1990, American mainstream culture was pulling away from the extremes of past decades, and artists began taking a new interest in the value of individual voices and experiences that influenced American culture as a whole. Consequently, Westerns in the last decade of the 20th century began to include the voices of Native Americans, immigrants, women, and sexual minorities with a surprisingly potent mixture of fact and myth. Rebekah Richins 52 Three of the most significant works to demonstrate this shift in America‟s interest and attitudes were the films Dances with Wolves (1990) and The Ballad of Little Jo (1995), and the critically acclaimed short story “Brokeback Mountain (1999).” Each piece illustrated unique and specific perspectives that represented the historical hardships and complexities faced by minorities in the West. Ultimately, these changes and additions to American cowboy myth came to reflect and reinforced a new ideal: The American Dream of success and the pursuit of happiness should be afforded to every person regardless of race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. The first of the films, Dances with Wolves, was one of the most significant contributions to Western epics in the history of the genre. The story‟s strengths were its inclusion of genuine Native American characters, the empathetic perspective of both immigrants and Native Americans, and an assiduous attention to historical detail. In the end, the qualities served to elevate the material, as well as reflect and reinforce new American perceptions of the American Dream. To start, one of the biggest criticisms of American cowboy myth, up until the 1990s, was the lack of authentic Native Americans in Westerns. Jane Tompkins, author of West of Everything (1992), wrote: “Indians are repressed in Westerns—there but not there—in the same way women are. At least women in Westerns are not played by men. At least horses are not played by dogs, or cattle by goats. Faked scenery is more convincing than fake Indians are” (9). Dances with Wolves, by contrast, was revolutionary in its depiction of Native Americans. The entire cast consisted of veteran and novice Native American actors who gave depth, dimension, and most of all authenticity to their roles. These essential characters were not just played by white men in Rebekah Richins 53 thick make-up, made to speak with childish broken English. Tompkins went on to praise the film by saying: Here the Lakota Sioux (played by themselves) are attractive and believable, individually and as a group. They draw you to them, their closeness is palpable—the family you never had, the community you never belonged to—and you know why the protagonist deserts the army to become one of them. Their lives make sense. But Costner‟s triumph in this respect emphasizes the sad history that makes his film so distinctive (10). Furthermore, the writers, especially novelist and screenwriter Micheal Blake, deliberately avoided polarized clichés that depicted white men as victims and red men as villains. Blake wrote: “I‟ve educated myself, but the main thing has been the human element. Dances with Wolves was written to put a human face on these people [Native Americans]. That was my only goal: “Look, these are people, too” (Blake 348). By choosing to illustrate this complex perspective, the destructive consequences of the Manifest Destiny were illustrated by examples of victims and heroes from both races. The last element filmmakers included was strict historical accuracy. The result of the choice was a potent authenticity never before achieved by a Western film. Roger Ebert wrote: “The movie makes amends, of a sort, for hundreds of racist and small-minded Westerns that went before it. By allowing the Sioux to speak in their own tongue, by entering their villages and observing their ways, it sees them as people, not as whooping savages in the sights of an Army rifle” (Ebert “Review of Dances with Wolves”). In the end, this attention to detail and empathetic representation illustrated the Rebekah Richins 54 dramatic shift that had occurred in American cowboy myth: All people would have a voice, and all deserved the chance for the American Dream. The next film was the Ballad of Little Jo. Though not as big budget and epically driven as Dances with Wolves, this film, in its own quiet way, also contributed a significant illustration of the mythical shift during the last decade of the twentieth century. It did this by simply telling the story of a woman and a Chinese immigrant trying to survive in the hostile and even dangerous environment that was the Old West. Josephine (Suzi Amis), later known as “Jo,” was a privileged woman, who became pregnant out of wedlock. When her wealthy Eastern family discovered this, they gave her an unforgiving deal: “We‟ll take the baby and raise it in privilege. But we never want to see you again.” With few other options, Jo moved out West. Unfortunately, she was not there long before someone realized she was not a married woman or a schoolmarm, and she soon became the target of less than scrupulous men. After she was attacked, nearly raped, and given a scar on her face that extend from her eye to her chin, she decided she had about enough of being treated like a piece of meat. She cut her hair, bought men‟s clothes, and moved to a place where no one knew her. Roger Ebert wrote, “The Old West must not have been a very nice place. It was violent, dirty, undernourished, disease-ridden, cursed with alcoholism and venereal disease, and thickly populated with varmints human and otherwise. It was no place for a woman - not even the two kinds of women most familiar in Western movies, schoolmarms and hookers” (“Review of The Ballad of Little Jo”). Later, after Jo had fully integrated into a life of sheepherding, she saved the life of a man named Tin Man Wong (David Chung). A group of men were trying to lynch him, Rebekah Richins 55 because he was Chinese and looking for work in a racist and bigoted town. At first Jo hired him as a cook, but due to close quarters and a few moments of accidental discovery, Tin Man realized “Jo” was not what “he” seemed. Eventually, the two find a way to be happy and successful together by keeping up the façade of Jo‟s assumed gender and Tin Man‟s role as servant. The Ballad of Little Jo illustrated Western myth had shifted in two ways. First, it told a realistic account of what it meant to be a minority in the West. Secondly, it illustrated a distressing scenario of how harsh and brutal life was for anyone trying to carve a life out of the American wilderness. In the end, The Ballad of Little demonstrated how illusive the American Dream was to achieve for any person, but especially for minorities. The last piece, “Brokeback Mountain,” not only illustrated a shift in Westerns at the end of the twentieth century, it stood as a testament of how far Western myth had come since its inception. This story completely bypassed conventional Western myth by telling the account of two young cowboys, Jack and Ennis, who fell in love while working as sheepherders one summer in Wyoming. Eventually, they part and must make do with a lifetime of sporadic meetings. They still loved one another, but never shared their lives, for fear of prejudice and possible violence against them. Sadly, this proved good sense, as someone who suspected his inclinations eventually beat Jack to death with a tire iron. In defense and discussion of her short story, Annie Proulx wrote: The two characters had to have grown up on isolated hardscrabble ranches and were clearly homophobic, especially the Ennis character. Both wanted Rebekah Richins 56 to be cowboys, be part of the Great Western Myth, but it didn‟t work out that way; Ennis never got to be more than a rough-cut ranch hand and Jack Twist chose rodeo as an expression of cowboy [. . . .] Urban critics dubbed it a tale of two gay cowboys. No. It is a story of destructive rural homophobia. Although there are many places in Wyoming where gay men did and do live together in harmony with the community, it should not be forgotten that a year after this story was published, Mathew Shepard was tied to a buck fence outside the most enlightened town in the state, Laramie, home of the University of Wyoming. (130) It was evident from this statement Proulx had a very specific message she wanted to get across when she wrote her unconventional Western story. The American Dream wasn‟t just about monetary success. It was also about being free to pursue happiness the way one‟s heart dictated. This story of two simple cowboys, with their never-realized and finally shattered dreams, was a declaration that demanded that all people be free to pursue happiness and success in America. In conclusion, each of these pieces illustrated unique and specific perspectives that represented the historical hardships and complexities faced by minorities in the West. Ultimately, these changes and additions to American cowboy myth came to reflect and reinforced a new ideal: The American Dream of success and the pursuit of happiness should be afforded to every person regardless of race, gender, religion, or sexual orientation. Rebekah Richins 57 Chapter Works Cited The Ballad of Little Jo. Dir. Maggie Greenwald. Perf. Suzy Amis, David Chung, and Ian McKellan. New Line Cinema, 1993. DVD. Blake, Michael. “A Talk with Michael Blake.” The Holy Road. New York: Random House, 2001. 345-352. Print. Dances with Wolves. Dir. Kevin Costner. Perf. Kevin Costner, Mary McDonnell, Rodney Grant, and Graham Green. Orion Pictures, 1990. DVD. Ebert, Roger. “Review of The Ballad of Little Jo.” 10 Sept. Chicago Sun-times. 20 July 2010. Web. Ebert, Roger. “Review of Brokeback Mountain.” 10 Sept. Chicago Sun-times. 20 July 2010. Web. Ebert, Roger. “Review of Dances with Wolves.” 9 Nov. 1990. Chicago Sun-times. 20 July 2010. Web. Proulx, Annie. “Brokeback Mountain.” Close Range: Wyoming Stories. New York: Scriber, 1999. Print. Proulx, Annie. “Getting Movied.” Brokeback Mountain: Story to Screenplay. New York: Scriber, 2005. 129-138. Print. Tompkins, Jane. West of Everything. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Print. Rebekah Richins 58 Epilogue In conclusion, after careful analysis of more than a century of myth and history, the influence Western cowboy myth had on the American culture became abundantly evident. Furthermore, by chronologically categorizing the myth, it also becomes easier to see trends in American cultural attitudes and expectations about success. In the end, this approach proved once and for all the significance and unique value of this genre and its effect and impact on perceptions of America‟s past, present, and future.