PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 2 Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chair, Dr. Sheila Anderson for her continuous support, guidance, and direction with this research. I would also like to thank her for the refresher course in statistics and the countless hours she spent helping me with SPSS. I could not have imagined having a better chair and mentor for this research. I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Teri Henke and Dr. Nadia Wrosch for their feedback and support in writing this paper. I have been fortunate to have taken classes from each of you. Each class was influential in shaping my perspectives on developmentally appropriate practices and implementing best practices with young children and adult learners. Furthermore, I am grateful to my colleagues in the Early Childhood Department. Thank you for encouraging me to pursue this degree and mentoring me along the way. Thank you, Ann Cook, Robyn Giovacchini, Audrey Powell and Liz Davis for your support in this endeavor. Finally, I am forever indebted to my husband Jake, and my two young children, Carter and Sydney. Thank you for your endless patience, support, and encouragement with my late-night classes and weekends filled with research and writing. Thank you to my dearest friends and the Johnson’s for being a source of emotional support and entertaining my children. A special thank you to my aunt Susie for editing my work along the way and always discussing and enriching my ideas. And, to my aunt Susan, who passed away last year, thank you for always empowering me. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 3 Table of Contents NATURE OF THE PROBLEM ………………………………………………………….7 Literature Review…………………………………………………………………8 Early Childhood Educators and Program Quality……………….………..9 Early Childhood Educators and Professional Learning…………...……..10 Preservice early childhood education…..……………………..…11 The significance of developmentally appropriate practice for preservice education………....................................….12 Child development and learning………….….……….….13 Individual child……………………………………….….14 Social and cultural context…………….………………...14 Challenges of developmentally appropriate practice…...………..14 Professional Beliefs and Identity………………………………………...15 Adult Learning Theory…………………………………………….…….17 Practice-Based Coaching………………………………………………...19 Methodological Challenges ………………………………………….….20 Assessing developmentally appropriate practices……………… 21 Assessing developmentally appropriate practice beliefs...…...….22 Summary…………………………………………………………………………23 Action Research Pedagogical Approach & Implementation…………………….24 PURPOSE……………………………………………………………………….….……26 METHOD……………………………….………………………………………….……28 Participants………………………………………………………………………28 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 4 Procedure.……………………………………………………………………......29 Measures.…………………………………………………………….……….….30 Developmentally appropriate practice implementation…………….........30 Developmentally appropriate practice beliefs………….……………......31 Data Analysis………………………………………………………….……...….32 RESULTS…………………………………………………………………….……....….34 Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………….……34 Analysis……………………………………………………………………….…35 Research question a………………………………………………….…..35 Research question b……………………………………………………...38 Research question c………………………………………….……….….39 DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………….…...41 Closing the Gap between Beliefs and Practices………………………………….41 Implications for Adult Learners……………………………………………….....43 Reflections from the Field…………………………………………………….…45 Limitations……………………………………………………………………….48 Recommendations…………………………………………………………….….50 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………52 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………. 54 APPENDICES Appendix A: CLASS Observation Sheet and CLASS Scoring Sheet…………...62 Appendix B: TBQ-sort Online Questionnaire Instrument ………………………65 Appendix C: Research Approval Letters (IRB) …………………………………76 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 5 List of Tables Table 1. Number of Participants by Cohort for CLASS and TBQ Measurers…………..29 Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for DAP Implementation Using the CLASS Observational Measure……………………………………………………….….35 Table 3. Baseline and Posttest Comparison from Preservice EC Educator TBQ Belief Change Summary……………………………………………………37 Table 4. Baseline and Posttest DAP Implementation t-test Results (N=121) …………..38 Table 5. Baseline and Posttest DAP Beliefs and DAP Practices Correlation Results from TBQ (N=110) ……………………………………………………..40 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 6 Abstract This action research study explored how the implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model across an early childhood (EC) education university program influenced preservice EC educator beliefs and practices. To more fully understand the effectiveness of the Practice-Based Coaching approach, a pre/post design was used to compare changes in preservice EC educator developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) beliefs and implementation skills before and after the implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model to the university curriculum. Participants were 140 preservice EC educators enrolled in EC education upper-division advanced planning and guidance courses with lab school field experience. The assessment used for EC educator DAP beliefs was the Teacher Beliefs Q-sort. Implementation skills were assessed with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System for preschool. Results indicated a shift towards more DAP beliefs in the area of teaching practices, an increase in DAP implementation skills in Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support, and a more consistent pattern of correlations between DAP beliefs and implementation skills for the posttest group, as compared to baseline. Results suggest that implementation of the Practice-Based Coaching model may be beneficial in reducing inconsistencies between EC preservice educator beliefs and implementation skills by supporting belief shifts toward more DAP while improving DAP implementation skills. Keywords: early childhood, preservice, practice-based coaching, developmentally appropriate practices (DAP), Classroom Assessment Scoring System for preschool (CLASS), Teacher Beliefs Survey (TBS), Teacher Belief Q-sort (TBQ) PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 7 NATURE OF THE PROBLEM The demand for early childhood (EC) education services for young children from birth through age eight has increased globally, but the quality of many EC education programs remains low to moderate (Barnett et al., 2017). The preservice EC educators working in these programs support young children at a critical time in their development when the brain is growing rapidly (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015). The position statement Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) developed by the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) outlines a framework for informing EC educator decision-making, guiding effective planning and implementing experiences that stimulate and support young children’s learning. However, research suggests EC educators are largely unaware of inconsistencies between beliefs and practices, as they self-report stronger DAP beliefs and implementation of practices than observable DAP teaching practices (Sakellariou & Rentzou, 2011). Adult learning theory asserts that preservice educators are self-directed and that their life experience motivates interest in applying new knowledge (Merriam, 2001; Steyn, 2017). The Practice-Based Coaching (The National Center on Quality Teaching and Learning, NCQTL, 2017) framework is grounded in adult learning theory and may be effective in addressing the gap between DAP beliefs and implementation, but it is an emerging area of research that has been understudied (Stahl, Sharplin, & Kehrwald, 2018). The purpose of this action research study was to explore how the implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model across EC education program coursework and field experiences at an open enrollment, state-funded university influences preservice educator DAP beliefs and the ability to implement practices. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 8 Literature Review Over the last 20 years, public awareness about the importance of child development in the early years for life-long outcomes has increased substantially (Barnett et al., 2017; Institute of Medicine, 2000; Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015). Enrollment for 4-year-olds in state-funded preschool programs in the United States has nearly doubled from 14 percent to 32 percent over the last 15 years as expanding employment opportunities for women has led to a growing demand for high-quality early childhood (EC) education programs for young children (Barnett et al., 2017; McMullen et al., 2005). The quality of EC education programs is important because, “What is learned at the beginning of life establishes a set of capabilities, orientations to the world and expectations about how things and people will behave that affect how new experiences are selected and processed” (Institute of Medicine, 2000, p. 90). Yet, the quality of young children’s experiences and opportunities afforded in EC education settings differ significantly based on the EC educators’ developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) beliefs, their skills, and their personal dispositions (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015; Melhuish et al., 2016). This review of the research literature addresses the role of EC educators for EC education program quality. Key aspects of EC educator professional learning includes: DAP, professional identity, adult learning theory, and how a Practice-Based Coaching model may be useful in closing the gap between DAP beliefs and observed implementation of practices. Methodological assessment challenges will also be discussed. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 9 Early Childhood Educators and Program Quality The effectiveness of daily activities and experiences of young children in EC education programs depends on maintaining the delicate balance between preacademic content and social-emotional learning that drives child development. EC educators create high-quality learning experiences by applying child development knowledge in designing healthy and safe environments that inspire young children’s learning, foster exploration of new ideas and social-emotional well-being. Both structure and process quality characteristics of classrooms are important. Structure quality includes elements such as organization of the physical environment and daily schedule, group size, educator to child ratio, educator qualifications, and administrative supervision. Process quality refers to aspects of the relationships between teachers and children, and children with peers that support the social-emotional, cognitive, and language development of young children (Slot, Leseman, Verhagen, & Mulder, 2015). Although structure quality provides a vital foundation, process quality is key for children’s emotional, social, regulatory and cognitive development (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015). As young children approach challenging situations, responsive educator interactions help children engage in and master tasks and foster children’s internal motivation (Hamre, Hatfield, Pianta, & Jamil, 2014). Young children in classrooms where the educators were engaged in responsive teaching showed gains in early language and literacy skills, improved working memory, and experienced fewer educator-child conflicts (Hamre et al., 2014). PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 10 Early Childhood Educators and Professional Learning Well-trained and skilled EC educators are important to ensuring high-quality classrooms that provide a strong start for young children in school and life (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015; McMullen et al., 2005). Professional learning experiences can support EC educators in becoming more skilled at implementing higher process quality practices (Hamre et al., 2012). Professional learning is defined as ongoing opportunities that allow EC professionals to actively challenge their thinking and learning about working in early childhood settings and increase understanding about young children and child development in relevant and culturally significant learning that is grounded in research-based best practices (Edwards & Nuttall, 2009). A variety of professional learning opportunities may be tailored to meet the individual needs of EC professionals including: coaching, mentoring, consultation, advising, peer-to-peer assistance, and workshops or coursework (NAEYC & National Association of Child Care Resource and Referral Agencies, 2011). The State of Preschool Yearbook reported that to ensure effective, research-based, practices of early childhood programming across the nation requires “Better [preservice] education and training, including ongoing support, for [educators that] can improve the interactions between children and [educators], which in turn affects children’s learning” (Barnett et al., 2017). Indeed, preservice EC educators who engaged in professional learning, such as attending workshops, were more aware of their interactions with young children and sensitive to children’s overall needs. Likewise, EC educators that experienced professional learning opportunities provided a higher level of quality care and more supportive interactions for children’s advanced language skills, PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 11 as compared to those who did not attend professional learning opportunities (Burchinal, Cryer, Clifford, & Howes, 2002). In a meta-analysis study, Early and colleagues (2007) combined several large national databases from seven different studies to examine the link between the level of EC educator education (preservice and in-service), EC classroom quality and academic skills of young children. The studies specifically looked at the EC educator level of education and major, classroom quality using the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 2015) and the academic skills of young children in three areas: receptive language, pre-reading skills, and early math skills. Findings were mixed. There were associations between the level of preservice education and classroom quality, linked to child outcomes with some of the data sets, but not all. The authors suggest that results may have been inconclusive because differences in EC educator ability to implement DAP in pre-kindergarten classrooms may vary in effectiveness because some teaching majors do not include pre-kindergarten teaching practices and emphasize foundational DAP beliefs such as establishing trust relationships are underemphasized. Thus, higher education alone may not improve the quality of EC classrooms or children’s academic gains. However, when EC educators receive sustained professional learning to support DAP and process quality interactions between educators and young children, the effectiveness is likely to increase (Early et al., 2007). These authors recommend more research to better understand how to bridge the gap between preservice education and implementation of high-quality DAP classroom practices. Preservice early childhood education. Central areas of focus for EC education preservice education coursework included child development, theory, curriculum and PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 12 pedagogy grounded in DAP (NAEYC, 2009a). Coursework is often designed to prepare preservice EC educators to support the development of young children, facilitate learning toward challenging achievable goals, and build reciprocal relationships with children and their families (NAEYC, 2009b). Accurate beliefs and a strong foundation of skills regarding how young children learn may increase positive educator-child interaction and child engagement, which predict school readiness (Williford, Maier, Downer, Pianta, & Howes, 2013). When young children are in child-centered classrooms with positive interactions, consistent expectations for behavior and stimulating experiences, children are better able to regulate their feelings, concentrate on learning, and develop positive social skills (Williford et al., 2013). The significance of developmentally appropriate practice for preservice education. Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) is a professional position statement that articulates evidence-based guidelines for teaching. These guidelines focus on how to best meet the needs of the individual child and their learning styles, by applying and understanding child development to foster meaningful and relevant experiences (Charlesworth, 1998), that ensure progress towards challenging and achievable goals (NAEYC, 2009a). Developmentally Appropriate Practice embraces four premises: • Support learning by scaffolding to meet individual needs. • Provide learning experiences that are appropriate for child age and development. • Challenge children in their learning experiences. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 13 • Practice developmentally appropriate use of strategies (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). The Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) position statement was developed by EC educators using a consensus building approach that emphasizes using research-based guidelines to inform professional decision-making. The framework emphasizes EC educator decision-making informed by three core considerations linked to positive child development (NAEYC, 2009a). These considerations are knowing about: child development and learning, the individual child and what is appropriate for them, and the social and cultural contexts in which young children live to make their educational experiences meaningful (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Child development and learning. Decisions about planning, organization, and expectations for young children’s behaviors are guided by understanding how young children learn and their age-related characteristics (Bredekamp, 2014). Twelve principles of child development and learning summarize current theory and empirical evidence about how young children develop and learn (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Effective EC educators use research-based strategies and document young children’s progress to scaffold learning (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). “The early development of cognitive skills, emotional well-being, social competence, and sound physical and mental health builds a strong foundation for success well into the adult years” (Center on the Developing Child, 2007, p. 4). A study by Melhuish et al. (2016) indicated that one of the best predictors of child development outcomes is the quality of interactions with educators and other children. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 14 Individual child. Young children have a variety of individual learning needs. Through classroom observation, interactions with children, and communication with families, EC educators learn about the characteristics of individual children and tailor curriculum to fit their interests, needs, abilities, and strengths. One of the main premises of child development is that each child is different and that there is a wide range for optimal development (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Developmentally appropriate EC educators plan open-ended experiences and watch for young children to become engaged in areas of interest, and it is at that moment that the educator can guide the instruction to support the individual child (Charlesworth, 1998; Wasik & Jacobi-Vessels, 2017). Scaffolding experiences use the child’s zone of proximal development to tailor support for differing abilities (Martinez, 2010). Social and cultural context. Young children make sense of the world through their own cultural values and beliefs and through expectations of their behaviors (Bredekamp, 2014). Foundations of culturally responsive practice include building reciprocal relationships with the child's family, supporting the child's home language, and sense of identity through consideration of sociocultural factors and conditions in a child’s life. As EC educators gain insight into the cultures of individual young children it informs planning, creating relevant and meaningful learning experiences that authentically honor the cultures within the children’s learning environment (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Challenges of Developmentally Appropriate Practice. Developmentally Appropriate Practice (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) has been widely adopted in the field. However, DAP has not been immune to challenges and criticisms (Lubeck, 1998). PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 15 Almost 20 years ago, Lubeck (1998), challenged whether a single DAP framework could provide adequate support for the individual needs of all young children, as classrooms were becoming more diverse. Implementing more effective practices to prepare early childhood (EC) educators for the increased diversity and greater needs of young children, is a priority for many preservice EC education programs. To address these challenges, the DAP position statement was revised to include greater emphasis on the social and cultural context. The revised position statement continues to provide a decision-making framework that may guide complex decisions while facilitating the emerging professional beliefs and identities of preservice educators (NAEYC, 2009a). “[Educator’s] beliefs are often implicit and unarticulated, yet they influence [educator] perceptions, judgment, and decisions and direct [educators] to act in certain ways” (Vartuli, 2005, p. 76). Beliefs are how educators view their practice and their role, and as a result, one's beliefs impact decision making in the classroom. Findings from Goble, Horm, Atanasov, Williamson and Choi (2015), in a study about knowledge and beliefs in EC education preservice programs, found that increased educator learning supported beliefs about young children with more realistic expectations of young children, empathy, and an educator’s ability to meet individual young children’s needs in a child-centered environment. Professional Beliefs and Identity An EC educator’s belief system influences instructional practices (Sakellariou & Rentzou, 2011). Philosophies about education, how educators view themselves, and an educators’ belief of internal and external factors that affect young children and their classroom, play a role in daily EC educator practices (McMullen, 1999). Many preservice educators view teaching as transferring knowledge to children (educator centered), rather PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 16 than facilitating active learning, which is child-centered and developmentally appropriate. Rimm-Kauffman and colleagues (2006), recommend EC educators act as facilitators and shift into more child-centered learning experiences to promote independence and problem-solving. As educators give up some control in the classroom, they must often adapt to a child-centered classroom environment where children are active participants, more active in the learning, and may have higher noise levels. Adjusting to child-centered beliefs in the early stages of educator learning may support not only preservice educators, as they transition into the classroom, but also young child outcomes. [C]hildren learn more, better regulate their behaviors and attention and develop more positive social skills when they are in classrooms where the [educator] responds to students in ways that are warm, child-focused and sensitive; provides consistent behavioral expectations; and provides cognitively-stimulating tasks and feedback to students (Williford et al., 2013, p. 300). Likewise, understanding one’s identity helps us make better sense of the relationships educators develop within the contexts they encounter in preservice teacher education programs (Horn, Nolen, Ward, & Campbell, 2008). The professional identity of preservice educators is shaped by how they engage in their studies and their work, and what they choose to ‘accept,’ and then model (Horn et al., 2008). The development of educator identity is continuous and constructed as educators open themselves to new learning experiences through reflection of their own practice. Supporting preservice EC educators as they construct their professional identity and view themselves as educators is ongoing (Stahl et al., 2018). One of the challenges in EC education is supporting educators in becoming confident and reflective learners of their own practice, willing to PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 17 take ownership over their teaching and improve professional practices. EC educator learning opportunities may orient identities about DAP during preservice years when implemented as a model that supports feedback about their skills, opportunities to reflect on teaching practices and connect theory to classroom practices (Stahl et al., 2018). Adult learning theory outlines principles that inform how learning experiences may be designed to support this process. Adult Learning Theory Understanding the theory and research about how adults learn is imperative to strengthen the transfer of information from a course lecture, text, or a coach, to internalizing and then implementing into classroom practice. The Greek term andragogy, ‘leader of man,’ is used to define adult learning (Knowles, 1980). Adult learning is synonymous with self-directed learning because adults are capable of managing most aspects of their lives and directing their own learning (Merriam, 2001; Steyn, 2017). Adults, like young children, learn by constructing meaning and connecting new knowledge to prior understanding. Age and stage theory suggest that people do not stop learning as they age, and that learning is a life-long pursuit (Trotter, 2006). In effect we grow through engaging in the world, changing and being changed by it. We become ever more discriminating in our ability to see the world on its own terms, or as others see it, and even more able to make sense of it despite its growing complexity and yet respect its diversity (Daloz, as cited in Trotter, 2006, p. 9). Cognitive development theory suggests that adults move from concrete to abstract thinking in cognitive and intellectual development (Trotter, 2006). In an effort to better PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 18 understand learning as adults, Knowles described five assumptions important to the development of learning: (1) adults are independent and self-directed, (2) adults use life’s experiences to lead learning; (3) as social roles change, learning needs change for adults; (4) as adults need knowledge and skills, they seek education; (5) adults are intrinsically motivated to learn (Knowles, 1980; Beavers, 2009). Behavior change and adult learning theories suggest that it is challenging to change educator beliefs about DAP, as beliefs are created and refined over years and through experience (Hunzicker, 2004). Change in DAP beliefs and practices may be facilitated by connecting to an educators’ belief system through providing professional learning opportunities for sharing experiences, using reflective practices, and sharing skills and knowledge with peers, that validate DAP beliefs about education (Beavers, 2009), and can make the implementation more effective and likely to occur (Hunzicker, 2004). Learning experiences that are interactive provide opportunities to discuss and problem solve, facilitate reflection, growth, and adaptation in an evolving profession supporting adult learning and behavior change. When new information is presented repeatedly, and there are opportunities to ‘try’ strategies in the classroom with the support of coaches, educators may begin to feel an imbalance in beliefs about education practices, and begin to think differently about DAP practices, becoming open to new information (Hunzicker, 2004). This suggests that to develop a strong professional identity and effectively implement DAP practices, preservice EC educators need opportunities to engage with other educators to collaborate, problem solve and engage in practices that are developmentally appropriate (Baumgartner, Buchanan, & Casbergue, 2011). Learning PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 19 from master EC educators and coaching support through team meetings, planning, preparing and implementing learning experiences in a developmentally appropriate framework, supports beginning EC educators. A combination of coursework that supports mastery of knowledge and skills and reflective examination of beliefs with field experiences that include coaching, may strengthen the transfer of knowledge to more effective DAP implementation. Pianta and colleagues (2017) researched two approaches to educator learning of process quality interactions linked to young children’s school readiness. One approach was a semester-long course on supporting effective interactions between educator and child. The other approach was a coaching model where educators received focused observations and ongoing feedback to improve the quality of their interactions with children. Both the course and the coaching approach showed an improvement in educator-child interactions, however, the coaching model produced significantly stronger language and literacy teaching practices, which have been associated with better child outcomes (Pianta et al., 2017). Coaching provided individualized feedback about the educators’ ability to demonstrate new knowledge and implement effective teaching practices to support the needs of individual children. Research from Hsieh, Hemmeter, McCollum, & Ostrosky (2009), described coaching as a form of educator learning sustained over time, with opportunities for collaboration, related to practice, connected to curriculum and linked to child outcomes. Practice-Based Coaching Practice-Based Coaching may be an effective approach for supporting preservice EC educators in transferring theory and content knowledge of DAP into practice. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 20 Preservice EC educators need skills, knowledge, individualized feedback and encouragement to meet the varying developmental needs of their students (NCQTL, 2017). Practice-Based Coaching is a continuous model of professional learning that is flexible by design. Practice-Based Coaching focuses on everyday teaching practices that support children’s growth and development, as educators acquire new skills and strategies. Practice-Based Coaching models may include peer, expert, or self-coaching (NCQTL, 2017). The Practice-Based Coaching cyclical feedback process includes three components: shared goals and action planning, focused observation, and reflection and feedback (Snyder, Hemmeter, & Fox, 2015). These processes occur within the context of a collaborative relationship between coach and educator (NCQTL, 2017). A Practice- Based Coaching model may allow for support within the context of preservice educator learning, by providing a space where classroom practices are observed, goals developed, and feedback is reflective (Hsieh et al., 2009; Snyder et al., 2015), and creating a parallel process by supporting EC educators through a developmentally appropriate approach to address their learning needs (Baumgartner et al., 2011). Thus, Practice-Based Coaching may be effective in strengthening the transfer of learning DAP for preservice EC educators and inform a new generation of professional identity. Methodological Challenges To evaluate the effectiveness of implementing a Practice-Based Coaching model on strengthening the transfer of learning in DAP implementation, higher education faculty need assessment data that accurately captures preservice EC educator progress towards DAP beliefs and observable implementation of DAP. The challenge to measuring DAP is that it is open to interpretation and relies on an educators’ ability to PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 21 understand, believe in and implement practices that are developmentally appropriate (Vartuli, 2005). Effective assessments must also have an element of rigor, yet the efficiency and flexibility for preservice EC educators to quickly learn and use in their practice. In addition, a combination of survey and observation are considered best methods for measuring actual classroom practices versus reported practices (McMullen, 1999). Assessing developmentally appropriate practice. There is uncertainty about how to measure or assess DAP in the classroom and how they hold up to academic rigor (Brown, Feger, & Mowry, 2015). For example, the NAEYC accreditation process for EC education centers can be time-consuming and requires funding, which is not practical for assessing individual preservice EC educator practices. To support the growing needs of EC educators, NAEYC has published resources and reference guides to further explain the DAP approach and how it supports whole-child development and growth (NAEYC, 2009b). The guide titled 10 Effective DAP Teaching Strategies provides examples of how to use these strategies with young children. The strategies include: acknowledging, encouraging, giving specific feedback, modeling, demonstrating, creating, adding or reducing challenge, asking questions, giving assistance, providing information, and giving directions (NAEYC, 2009a). Many of these teaching strategies were captured in the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta, La Paro, & Hamre, 2008a) observational measure of classroom process quality, which is scored by trained observers. The CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) assesses three domains of educator-child interaction. Emotional Climate, including positive relationships, sensitivity, negative climate, regard for children’s perspective, and acknowledging children’s interests and ideas. Classroom PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 22 Organization includes proactive guidance, preparation, smooth transitions, using a variety of instructional formats such as modeling, demonstrating, giving directions, clarity of learning objectives, and child interest and engagement. Instructional Support guides prompting analysis and reasoning, connecting concepts to children’s experiences, providing specific feedback, creating challenge, asking open-ended questions, and providing information (Hamre, et al., 2014). Although, the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation does not directly measure structure quality aspects of DAP, process quality is targeted because “the physical environment (including materials) and curriculum matter in the context of how [EC educators] put them to use in their interactions with children” (Hamre, Goffin, & Kraft-Sayre, 2009, p. 5). Assessing developmentally appropriate practice beliefs. Beliefs are how one organizes meaning and makes sense of the world (Rimm-Kauffman, et al., 2006). Understanding educator’s priorities and DAP beliefs are essential for designing effective curriculum and coaching supports for preservice educators. As preservice educators obtain new knowledge, beliefs appear to shift (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006). The Teacher Belief Scale (TBS; Charlesworth et al., 1993) was designed to measure teachers’ beliefs about DAP, according to the standards of NAEYC. A study by Sakellariou and Rentzou (2011), considered the role of beliefs in preservice educators in relation to DAP and child-centered learning experiences. Results validated the claim that beliefs about DAP were higher than self-reported, and while EC educators promote a philosophy of DAP, their classroom practices were not at the same level (Sakellariou & Rentzou, 2011). Rimm-Kauffman et al. (2006) indicated that preservice and in-service educators hold different beliefs relating to classroom practices, and the TBS (Charlesworth et al., 1993) PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 23 may help to better understand how personal beliefs impact educator learning and classroom practices. One challenge in assessing beliefs is the common self-reporting problem and the tendency to view one’s self in a more positive light. Use of Q-sort methodology may address this problem. The Teacher Belief Q-sort (TBQ; Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) is an adapted version of the TBS (Charlesworth et al., 1993) assessment that was created to measure educators’ priorities and beliefs in relation to three dimensions: priorities about discipline and behavior management, priorities about educator practices and priorities in beliefs about children (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006). The TBQ offers a series of statements that must be categorized based upon an individual's beliefs and within each category, statements are prioritized, not eliminated (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006), which allows measurement of priority of one’s beliefs in order to examine changes in priorities. The TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) provides methodology for instructors to monitor how beliefs may be shifting in relation to one another. Summary An increasing demand for high-quality EC education programs requires EC educators that can effectively implement DAP experiences for the young children in their care. Traditional coursework methods of preservice training and educator learning alone cannot support the complex demands of implementing best practices. Practice-Based Coaching has the potential to strengthen preservice EC educator transfer of knowledge gained from coursework and the shaping of professional identity in relation to DAP by supporting preservice EC educators as they acquire and refine teaching strategies to support outcomes (Hsieh et al., 2009). Coaching can assist preservice EC educators in PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 24 becoming more confident, reflective and aware of teaching practices (Snyder et al., 2015; Stahl et al., 2018). Coaching practices that are learner-centered and reflective support the development of preservice EC educator identity by building content knowledge, practical skills, and strategies, eliciting reflection about teaching practices and instilling a sense of life-long learning as they gain experiences in teaching practice (Stahl et al., 2018). The CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) and TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) are tools preservice EC education programs may use to effectively assess progress towards implementing DAP and supporting preservice EC educator learning as they transform their beliefs about DAP into classroom practice. Action Research Pedagogical Approach & Implementation During the 2013-2014 academic year, faculty at a university in the western United States identified a gap in the transfer of knowledge of DAP beliefs to EC classroom practices. Initial program evaluation data (baseline for this study) showed that at the end of the advanced planning and guidance courses, the percentage of preservice EC educators that prioritized faculty targeted DAP beliefs (18 of 60 statements) in the “higher” or “highest” priority ranking ranged from 19% to 83% (Hicks, Bauer, & Qiu, 2014). Data for DAP implementation of observable practices with the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure indicated that Emotional Support was moderate to high (5.34 on a 7- point scale). Classroom Organization was moderate (4.54 on a 7-point scale). Instructional Support was low (3.34 on a 7-point scale; Hicks et al., 2014). To address lower quality implementation in the Classroom Organization and Instructional Support domains, faculty adapted the Practice-Based Coaching model (NCQTL, 2017) to fit the PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 25 strengths and needs of this specific program and began implementation of this model during the 2015-2016 academic year. During year one, faculty created a crosswalk that matched the 15-minute in-service suite topics (NCQTL, 2017) to required course objectives. An archive of 15- minute in-service suite materials and videos were created for faculty use. Each faculty explored ways to integrate these resources and Practice-Based Coaching into the required courses they taught. In addition, faculty and mentor teachers, who were also lead classroom teachers of young children, provided mentoring and coaching to preservice EC educators, were trained on the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure. Team inter-rater reliability was established. Lead teachers were observed by independent observers using the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure and were provided with feedback. Mentor teachers also completed a 9-credit hour coaching certificate. At the end of year one, the faculty team debriefed, shared techniques and feedback. For year two (2016-2017), the Practice-Based Coaching model was further adapted to include preservice EC educator guided action planning based on self-assessment that guided focused observations with weekly verbal coaching feedback from mentor teachers. Preservice EC educators also received peer and instructor feedback on video observations two to three times per semester. Preservice EC educator DAP implementation and beliefs were assessed, and formative data was provided to faculty and mentor teachers. During year three (2017- 2018) the focused observation feedback forms were adapted to target more specific DAP implementation practices. Preservice EC educator DAP implementation and beliefs were assessed, and a formative summary of the data was provided to faculty and mentor teachers. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 26 PURPOSE This action research study explored how the implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model across an early childhood (EC) education preservice educator university program influenced preservice EC educator beliefs and practices. Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) beliefs and implementation practices from advanced planning and guidance courses and implementation skills of preservice EC educators for a baseline cohort (2013-2014) that did not experience the Practice-Based Coaching curriculum changes were compared to a posttest cohort (2017-2018) that had experienced the Practice-Based Coaching curriculum changes. The primary research question was: How does implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model across an EC education teacher education program, influence preservice educator DAP beliefs and practices? Subordinate questions included: a. How do preservice EC educator DAP belief priority ratings change from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort? The belief priority ratings for the posttest cohort were expected to shift towards more DAP beliefs than the baseline cohort because the Practice-Based Coaching model with course modifications reflecting the three-part cyclical framework was implemented (Goble et al., 2015; NCQTL, 2017). b. How do preservice educator DAP observable implementation skills change from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort? The DAP implementation skills for the posttest cohort were expected to be higher than the baseline cohort, with larger increases in Instructional Support, and small increases in the Emotional Support and Classroom Organization domains. Similar to findings in other PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 27 studies (Baumgartner et al., 2011; McMullen et al., 2005; NCQTL, 2017), the Instructional Support domain was the lowest domain for the baseline cohort. Therefore, this domain has the most room for growth. c. How do the associations between the preservice educator baseline cohort and the preservice educator posttest cohort DAP belief and implementation skills change over time? The strength of association between preservice EC educator priority ranking of DAP beliefs targeted by faculty and implementation skills were expected to be positive and stronger for the posttest cohort after the Practice-Based Coaching model was fully implemented, than for the baseline cohort (NCQTL, 2017; Pianta, Mashburn, Downer, Hamre, & Justice, 2008b; Vartuli, 2005). PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 28 METHOD To more fully understand the effectiveness of the Practice-Based Coaching strategy this action research study examined extant program evaluation data available from a university in the western United States. A pre/post design compared changes in preservice early childhood (EC) educator developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) beliefs and implementation skills before and after a Practice-Based Coaching model was implemented in the university curriculum. Participants Participants were a cross-sectional convenience sample of upper-division undergraduate preservice EC educators attending an open enrollment, state-funded university, in the western United States, with an organizational mission emphasizing community-engaged learning. The university’s annual enrollment was approximately 26,000 with a student body characterized by approximately 54% female and 46% male students, 56% non-traditional students, 96% of students live off campus, and a faculty to student ratio of 21:1 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2018). Participants were enrolled in an upper-division advanced planning and guidance course and seeking one of the following degrees: non-licensure EC bachelor’s degree, EC Education (pre-k – 3rd grade), Dual Elementary Education/Early Childhood (pre-K through 8th grade) or Kindergarten-Grade Six Licensure. Average GPA of all enrolled students was 3.17 the year the baseline cohort data was collected and 3.16 the year the posttest cohort data was collected (D. Gregg, personal communication, July 30, 2018). The participants ranged in age from 18-40. Less than 1% were male. There were 140 participants total, 83 in the baseline cohort (2013-2014) and 57 in the posttest cohort (2017-2018). The course PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 29 assessment protocol included preservice EC educator completion of the Teacher Belief Q-sort (TBQ; Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) through an online survey and an evaluation of DAP implementation skills with the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et al., 2008a) direct observation measure completed by independent observers. The online TBQ survey included an IRB approved informed consent form. Only the extant data for preservice EC educators agreeing to participate in research were used for this study. The potential participants for each cohort in this study, when comparing preservice EC educator enrollment to actual participants was 81% for the baseline cohort and 97% for the posttest cohort. Some participants completed only one of the measures. Table 1 provides a summary. Table 1 Number of Participants by Cohort for CLASS and TBQ Measurers CLASS & TBQ CLASS Only TBQ Only Total Participants Baseline Cohort (2013-2014) 74 0 9 83 Posttest Cohort (2017-2018) 41 10 6 57 Procedure Participants completed the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) online survey at the beginning of their first field experience planning course and at the end of their final student teaching course. The final TBQ data from the survey completed at the end of the advanced planning and guidance course was used for this study. Preservice EC educators were observed by trained, independent observers using the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure during their last week of advanced planning and guidance course field PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 30 experience. The observers were upper division undergraduate students from other majors and visiting scholars from other universities with a Ph.D. level of education in EC. Protocol for this study was approved by the IRB. All researchers and research assistants completed required research ethics training. All participant information was deidentified and kept confidential using IRB approved protocol. Measures Developmentally appropriate practice implementation. Preservice EC educator DAP implementation was assessed using the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure. The CLASS is an observational measure of classroom process quality that focused on educator-child interactions on ten dimensions organized in three domains: Emotional Support, Classroom Organization, and Instructional Support (Pianta et al., 2008a). A printed copy of the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation measure scoring sheet, with dimensions, can be found in Appendix A. Each dimension was rated on a scale from one (low) to seven (high). Inter-rater reliability was reported at over 80% agreement (La Paro, Pianta, & Stuhlman, 2004). Internal consistency ranged from .85 to .88 for the three domains (Curby, Johnson, Mashburn, & Carlis, 2016; La Paro et al., 2004). The construct validity of the CLASS had been measured by comparing the CLASS to other EC quality measures and with each comparison, the results indicated that the CLASS was a valid and reliable measure for classroom quality (Buell, Han, & Vukelich, 2016). In 2004, the CLASS was used in 227 EC classrooms along with the Early Childhood Environmental Rating Scale (Harms et al., 2015) and the two measures were highly correlated (Buell et al., 2016). Higher scores on the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure have also been positively associated with improved child outcomes PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 31 (Pianta et al., 2008b). Independent observers (upper division undergraduate research assistants and visiting EC education Ph.D. scholars) were trained on the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation measure to measure developer reliability standards of being within one point of dimension scores 80% of the time across all dimensions during an observation. The measure developer recommended 20-minute observation cycles (Pianta et al., 2008a). For this study, preservice EC educators were observed for three 10-minute cycles, scoring for five to 10-minutes between cycles. Shorter, 10-minute observation cycles were used for this project because preservice EC educator implemented lesson plans lasted about 45-minutes. The mean score across all three cycles during the observation was used for analysis. Interobserver reliability was conducted on approximately 20% of CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observations. Percentage agreement ranged from 71% to 100% with over 90% of observations meeting tool developer recommendations for reliability. Cronbach’s alpha for all domains and for the total score were high (N = 125): Emotional Support α = .89, Classroom Organization α = .83, Instructional Support α = .94, and the CLASS Total α = .93. Developmentally appropriate practice beliefs. An online version of the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) was used to evaluate preservice EC educator beliefs at the beginning of their first lower division curriculum planning courses and at the end of student teaching. A printed copy of the online TBQ can be found in Appendix B. The TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) consisted of 60 statements organized in three beliefs categories (20 statements each): beliefs about discipline and behavior management, beliefs about teaching practices, and beliefs about children. For each category, preservice EC educators sorted each statement according to a five-tier hierarchy (lowest to highest PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 32 priority). Then preservice EC educators were asked to order the four statements in each tier from most to least important, which resulted in a rank order from 1 to 20. Research from Rimm-Kauffman et al. (2006) established the TBQ as a reliable and valid measure. Validity was established by interviewing six educators who did not develop the TBQ, asking about their priorities in relation to the three belief categories, and then ranking their priority on a scale of one to five. An additional ten educators completed a questionnaire reflecting on teaching practices and prioritization of belief statements. Reliability was established after the TBQ was completed twice in 12 months by 44 educators with Spearman’s correlations between the two time points ranging from 0.67 to 0.93 (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006). For this study, the university ECE faculty prioritized belief statements viewed as most closely aligning with DAP and program goals as the comparison criteria for preservice EC educator shifts in DAP beliefs. Data Analysis The CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation scores and responses from the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) were coded and personal information deidentified by using unique, four-digit numbers to maintain the confidentiality of participants. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 21. Descriptive statistics were examined. Independent sample t-tests were used to compare preservice EC educator baseline cohort and posttest cohort DAP implementation skills (CLASS observation domain and total scores and t-test). Pearson’s chi-square tests with Cramèr’s V were used to examine baseline to posttest changes in DAP belief priority ratings (TBQ faculty prioritized belief statements by category). Pearson’s bivariate correlations were used to examine how the associations PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 33 between preservice EC educator baseline cohort and posttest cohort DAP belief and implementation skills changed over time. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 34 RESULTS To examine how implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model across an early childhood (EC) education teacher education program influences preservice EC educator developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) beliefs and practices, descriptive statistics were examined, then the analysis was conducted to answer the three subordinate research questions: a. How do preservice EC educator DAP belief priority ratings change from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort? b. How do preservice EC educator DAP observable implementation skills change from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort? c. How do the associations between preservice EC educator baseline cohort and preservice EC educator posttest cohort DAP belief and implementation skills change over time? Descriptive Statistics Descriptive statistics were examined for the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et al., 2008a) domains and total score. Results are reported in Table 2. All cases, baseline (n = 74) and posttest (n = 51) provided an N=125. The mean scores for the preservice EC educator posttest cohort scores were higher than the mean scores for the baseline cohort for all CLASS domains and the total score. CLASS data were examined for normality of distribution and outliers three standard deviations beyond the mean. No outliers or significant deviations from a normal distribution were identified. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 35 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for DAP Implementation Using the CLASS Observational Measure CLASS Domains Baseline N= 74 Posttest N= 51 Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Emotional Support 5.53 0.50 3.75-6.42 6.06 0.45 4.83-7.00 Classroom Organization 4.74 0.59 3.11-6.11 5.34 0.57 3.89-6.67 Instructional Support 3.52 0.81 1.78-5.22 3.99 1.21 1.33-6.33 CLASS Total 4.60 0.56 2.88-5.79 5.16 0.65 3.80-6.70 Analysis Research question a: How do preservice EC educator DAP belief priority ratings change from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort? The first aim of this study explored how preservice EC educator DAP belief priority ratings changed from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort. The Teacher Belief Q-sort (TBQ; Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) measured preservice EC educators’ prioritized beliefs in three categories: discipline and behavior management, teaching practices, and beliefs about children, compared to faculty identified program priorities (6 beliefs for each of the 3 categories). A two-way contingency table analysis using Pearson’s chi-square test and Cramèr’s V was conducted to evaluate the difference in DAP belief priority ratings over time using prioritized teacher beliefs in the “higher” or “highest” priority groups between the baseline and posttest cohort. TBQ data was recoded to a binomial variable with a 1 indicating the belief had been ranked in the “higher” or “highest” priority groups, and 0 indicating the belief had been sorted as a lower priority. The two variables for the PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 36 contingency table analysis were priority rated for each DAP belief statement and cohort (baseline and posttest). Results are reported in table 3. There was one belief statement that showed a statistically significant difference in the observed frequency rate from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort. The belief working on group projects was prioritized as “higher” or “highest” by 11.8% more of preservice educators in the posttest cohort, than the baseline cohort. Three additional belief statements approached statistical significance (p < .10) with the posttest cohort showing a higher percentage of preservice EC educators ranking each as a “higher” or “highest” priority: it is important to respect children’s autonomy and expect them to act in a responsible manner, each child teaches me something, and children cannot be understood without knowing something about their families. However, one DAP belief, encouraging children and giving feedback that is focused on the process of children’s creations or thinking, not the outcomes or the solution, was prioritized as “higher” or “highest” by a higher percentage of preservice educators in the baseline cohort, than the posttest cohort (p < .05). These results suggest that preservice EC educator beliefs for the posttest cohort had shifted toward higher priorities on DAP, than in the baseline cohort. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 37 Table 3 Baseline and Posttest Comparison from Preservice EC Educator TBQ Belief Change Summary Belief Category Faculty Prioritized Teacher Belief “Higher” or “Highest” (abbreviated) Percent of Preservice EC Educator Rated “Higher” or “Highest” Priorities Person’s chi-square Cramér’s Baseline V N = 83 Posttest N = 47 Discipline and Behavior Management 4. Children engaged have fewer problems 83.1 80.9 1.27 6. Monitoring children can prevent problems 22.8 31.9 1.27 9. Classrooms run smoothly with clear behavior expectations 83.1 87.2 0.39 11. Self-monitoring is an important skill for children to develop 80.7 80.9 0.00 12. Respect children’s autonomy 62.6 76.6 2.67 ϯ 0.14 17. Treat children with respect and kindness 75.9 72.3 0.20 18. Verbal punishment is an unacceptable 33.7 38.3 0.27 Teaching Practices 3. Welcome each child by name to class 84.4 80.9 0.26 4. Doing an activity to create a sense of community 62.7 74.5 1.89 9. Reflect and talk about social interactions 50.6 51.0 0.00 10. Reflect on the content and talk about what we learned 68.6 57.5 1.65 12. Modeling behaviors for children 86.7 80.8 0.80 15. Permitting children to choose from a variety of activities 61.4 68.1 0.57 16. Giving feedback on the process of children’s creations 86.8 72.4 4.14* 0.18 19. Working on group projects 43.5 55.3 9.31** 0.27 Children 1. Almost all children in my class try their best 47.0 34.0 2.06 3. Children need to be met at their ability 66.3 80.9 1.03 4. Each one of my children teach me something 39.8 48.9 3.14 ϯ 0.15 5. Almost all children are equally likable and enjoyable 24.1 19.1 0.42 11. Understand children by knowing their families 38.5 55.3 3.41ϯ 0.16 13. Children need to feel safe and secure in the classroom 93.9 93.6 0.01 15. Recognize children’s strengths to promote learning 45.8 44.6 0.01 17. Children need opportunities to be creative in the classroom 50.6 46.8 0.17 Note. ϯ p < 10; *p < .05; **p < .01 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 38 Research question b: How do preservice EC educator DAP observable implementation skills change from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort? Independent sample t-tests, unequal variance assumed, were used to examine the mean differences between the baseline cohort and the posttest cohort of preservice EC educator DAP implementation skills using the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) domain and total scores. Results are reported in Table 4. The posttest cohort DAP implementation skills were higher than the baseline cohort for all of the CLASS domains and the CLASS total score, with a mean difference of .56 for the total score. For the domain scores, Classroom Organization had a slightly higher gain in score .60, than Emotional Support .52, and Instructional Support .46. Results suggest that after implementation of the Practice-Based Coaching model the posttest cohort DAP implementation skills were stronger than the baseline cohort. These findings support the hypothesis that DAP implementation skills would increase, however, the Instructional Support domain was expected to show larger gains than the other domains because there was more room for growth. This domain showed smaller or similar gains to the other domains. Table 4 Baseline and Posttest DAP Implementation t-test Results (N=125, baseline n = 74, posttest n = 51) CLASS Domains ta df Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval Lower Upper Emotional Support 6.24*** 114.38 0.53 0.34 0.70 Classroom Organization 5.68*** 110.31 0.60 0.39 0.81 Instructional Support 2.43* 80.19 0.47 0.09 0.86 CLASS Total 5.08 *** 97.69 0.56 0.32 0.77 Note. aunequal variance assumed; *p > .05; *** p > .001 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 39 Research question c: How do the associations between DAP belief and implementation skills change over time for the preservice EC educator baseline cohort and the posttest cohort? To examine how the association of DAP beliefs and the implementation of skills changed over time from baseline to posttest cohort, Pearson’s bivariate correlations between faculty prioritized DAP beliefs and preservice EC educator CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) scores were examined. All selected beliefs were expected to be positively associated with CLASS scores. Two-tailed significance tests were used with a cut-off of p = .10 due to the smaller sample size of the posttest cohort. Results are reported in Table 5. Overall, associations between DAP beliefs and implementation of skills seemed to be more consistent for the posttest cohort (7 at p < .05 and 6 at p < .10 in positive direction) than for the baseline cohort (8 at p < .05 and 2 p < .10 in positive direction), with the strength of the relationships tending to be small to moderate. These results support the initial hypothesis that the Practice-Based Coaching model may be effective in closing the gap between beliefs and practices by increasing observation and reflection skills and scaffolding learner professional identity. However, the direction of the association for one belief, working on group projects, was opposite of the expected direction in the initial hypothesis. This suggests that although there was an increase percentage of posttest preservice EC educators that ranked working on group projects (see results for RQ A) as a “higher” or “highest” priority, the belief was associated with lower observed DAP implementation practices. Negative associations may indicate that preservice educators with lower DAP implementation skills in the posttest cohort, had acquired an awareness of the importance of engaging children in collaborative learning, but need increased concrete support in developing skills for implementing practices. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 40 Table 5 Baseline and Posttest DAP Beliefs and DAP Practices Correlation Results from TBQ (N=115) Emotional Support Classroom Organization Instructional Support CLASS Total Belief Category Faculty Prioritized Teacher Belief (abbreviated) Baseline N=74 Posttest N=41 Baseline N=74 Posttest N=41 Baseline N=74 Posttest N=41 Baseline Posttest N=74 N=41 Discipline and Behavior Management 4. Children engaged have fewer problems 0.25* 0.27 ϯ 0.23* 6. Monitoring children can prevent problems 9. Classrooms run smoothly, clear expectations 11. Self-monitoring is an important skill 12. Respect children’s autonomy 17. Treat children with respect and kindness 0.31* 0.30 ϯ 0.32 * 18. Verbal punishment is an unacceptable 3. Welcome each child by name to class 4. Doing activity to create a sense of community 9. Reflect and talk about social interactions 0.33* 0.35* 0.26 ϯ 10. Reflect on the content 12. Modeling behaviors for children 0.28 ϯ 0.26 ϯ 15. Children to choose from a variety of activities -0.22 ϯ 16. Give feedback on the process of creations 19. Working on group projects -0.51*** 0.27* -0.37** 0.28* -0.45** 0.28* -0.48*** Children 1. Almost all children in try their best 3. Children need to be met at their ability 0.30 ϯ 4. Each child teaches me something 5. Almost all children are equally likable 11. Understand children by their families 0.23* 13. Children need to feel safe and secure -0.23 ϯ 15. Recognize strengths to promote learning 17. Children need opportunities to be creative 0.21 ϯ 0.29* 0.24* Note. ϯp < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001 Teaching Practices PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 41 DISCUSSION This action research study explored how the implementation of a Practice-Based Coaching model across early childhood (EC) education program coursework and field experiences influenced preservice EC educator developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) beliefs and practices. Results suggest that implementation of the Practice-Based Coaching model may be effective in supporting preservice EC educators in shifting beliefs and developing DAP implementation skills and strengthening the association between DAP beliefs and practices. With a growing demand for high-quality EC programming for young children, EC educators need to be skilled in DAP. These results suggest that implementing a Practice-Based Coaching model and assessing the beliefs and practices of preservice EC educators may be an effective means of meeting this demand through collaborative coaching partnerships grounded in principles of adult learning theory to facilitate professional identity. Previously, little was known about how to adapt Practice-Based Coaching and its effectiveness for use with the specific constraints of EC education preservice education programs, these results suggest that implementation of the Practice-Based Coaching model aligned across coursework and field experiences, supported growth in preservice EC educator DAP beliefs and practices. Closing the Gap Between Beliefs and Practice Research suggests EC educators are largely unaware of their inconsistencies as they self-report stronger DAP beliefs and implementation of practices than actual observable implementation of DAP teaching practices (Sakellariou & Rentzou, 2011). From the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort, there were more small to moderate correlations between the Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS; Pianta et al., PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 42 2008a) observation measure and the faculty selected targeted belief statements measured by the Teacher Belief Q-sort (TBQ; Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006). This suggests the dynamic relationship between DAP beliefs and practices is sensitive to professional learning, such as intentionally aligning coursework and coaching to focus on targeted beliefs and practices. Over time, as beliefs about DAP shift, classroom practices may also shift, with both aligning more closely with DAP. An interesting finding was that a higher percentage of posttest cohort preservice EC educators prioritized the belief “working on group projects” higher than the baseline cohort, but this belief had strong negative associations with CLASS scores for the posttest cohort, and small to moderate positive associations with CLASS scores in the baseline cohort. It may be that the higher education program curriculum has been effective in supporting low performing preservice EC educators in the posttest cohort in shifting beliefs towards collaborative learning strategies, but concrete targeted supports for mastering implementation practices needs to be strengthened for lower performing preservice EC educators. In addition, the initial hypothesis was that the Instructional Support domain would show the largest gain in the posttest cohort because this domain had the lowest mean score, so there was more room for growth. However, the Instructional Support domain showed a similar gain to the Emotional Support and Classroom Organization domains. Other authors have noted that the Instructional Support domain is a more difficult domain to change, and as preservice EC educator beliefs shift, it takes even longer for the beliefs to transfer into observable practices (Hamre et al., 2012). This suggests that more targeted educational strategies or an increased number of coaching feedback sessions PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 43 may be needed to support acquiring the more complex instructional skills assessed by this domain (Pianta et al., 2014). Implications for Adult Learners These findings suggest that the implementation of the Practice-Based Coaching model may be a transformative catalyst for shifting preservice EC educator DAP beliefs and supporting the mastery of practices. This aligns with foundational adult learning theory concepts that may support the transformation by utilizing adult strengths. These concepts include: adults are self-directed learners, life experiences lead to learning, and adults have a desire to learn (Steyn, 2017). The Practice-Based Coaching model was designed to guide preservice EC educators as they moved from concrete to abstract thinking and had opportunities to move through the cyclical framework. Cognitive development theory may be used to explain the cognitive evolution preservice EC educators move through as beliefs began to shift. First, preservice EC educators view beliefs and practices in concrete terms, then there is an acceptance to rely on standards to guide decisions (external beliefs). Next preservice EC educators show an awareness of shifting beliefs, and lastly, preservice EC educators rely on internal beliefs, accept others’ viewpoints, reflect on individual practices and make decisions based on internal DAP beliefs (Trotter, 2006). The Practice-Based Coaching model supports adult learning by building on existing strengths, pairing coursework with self-selected goals to support the learning of new skills and teaching strategies and gaining a deeper understanding of DAP beliefs and the implementation of DAP practices to support child outcomes (NCQTL, 2017; Snyder et al., 2015). PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 44 Specific findings for the results of changes in DAP beliefs from baseline to posttest included a higher percentage of posttest cohort preservice EC educators’ rating, reflecting and talking about something such as a social interaction that “worked” or “didn’t work” in our class, as a high or higher priority, than the baseline cohort. In the category beliefs about children. Surprising findings included the small to moderate, but consistent associations between the belief working on group projects with children in both the baseline and posttest cohorts, with a negative direction for the posttest cohort and positive direction for the baseline cohort. In addition, there was no significant difference in the priority rankings for most of the beliefs examined, but consistent improvement in DAP implementation skills. This suggests that beliefs and practices are sensitive and can be changed, but some beliefs and practices may be more challenging to change than others (Hunzicker, 2004). Empirical literature suggests that observing other EC educator’s implementation of DAP is the most powerful predictor for a change in beliefs (Pianta et al., 2014). The gains in preservice EC educator DAP belief shifts and practices are promising, but there is room for improvement. Indeed, it may be useful for faculty to further examine how the DAP beliefs on the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) that were not prioritized by faculty were associated with DAP implementation skills, as there may be other beliefs that have a stronger association with DAP implementation than those targeted by faculty. Continuing to refine the Practice-Based Coaching model through the cycle of reflective inquiry and assessing DAP beliefs and practices with future cohorts may provide opportunities for identifying the best ways to support growth in the Instructional Support domain. This action research study is grounded in theory about adult learners, PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 45 which suggests a similar approach may be useful for professionals entering the EC field without any preservice higher education experience. It may be useful for employers to use a Practice-Based Coaching approach that pairs training courses with coaching to guide orientation and professional learning of new staff as EC educators learn to effectively implement curriculum grounded in NAEYC’s three core considerations of DAP (NAEYC, 2009a), in an effort to meet the needs of young children and support child outcomes. Indeed, measures such as the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) and CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a), may provide useful data to inform goal setting and action planning that is tailored to the individual abilities of new professionals. Future research opportunities may include action research studies to assess DAP beliefs and practices of EC educators in private and public education centers. Reflections from the Field Reflection and revision are essential components of action research. Faculty and mentor teachers working with the baseline and posttest cohort preservice EC educators were encouraged by the results of this study and plan to continue use and refinement of the Practice-Based Coaching model. The assessment data has also been useful as a data-informed approach that informs program evaluation reporting. The perspective of preservice EC educators is also important to consider. Recently independent program accreditation evaluators interviewed a small sample of preservice EC educators enrolled in this program. The evaluators reported that the preservice EC educators interviewed, reported a strength of the program to be the individualized support they received and the continuity or alignment across coursework. In addition, the university lab school classroom quality has increased as mentor teachers were also observed using the CLASS PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 46 (Pianta et al., 2008a) measure and provided with observational feedback regarding their own practices, and quality has increased over the time of this study (personal communication, S. Anderson, July 30, 2018). Mentor teacher CLASS total average scores for the baseline cohort was 5.41 (range 3.82 - 6.44; Emotional Support 6.17, Classroom Organization 5.70, Instructional Support 4.38) and for the posttest cohort was 5.97 (range 5.04 - 6.88, Emotional Support 6.49, Classroom Organization 6.07, Instructional Support 5.34). Considering the context of mentor teacher skills is important as it may be challenging for preservice EC educators to exceed the skill level of their mentor teacher and coach, and beliefs and implementation skills of mentor teachers that are more aligned with DAP may facilitate preservice educator learning. The use of the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation and the Teacher Belief Q-sort (TBQ; Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) as assessments may have allowed university professors to better understand the beliefs of preservice EC educators and ways to support the awareness, development, and growth of DAP in preservice EC educators. An important next step will be examining the transition of preservice EC educators to in-service EC educators and the continuity between DAP beliefs and practices used to meet the developmental needs of young children. As an EC teacher specialist and part of the administrative team working at a publicly funded pre-k program, these results may be useful for my program as the reflections are similar to findings in the empirical literature suggesting that coaching has been found to improve classroom process quality, which is important because higher process quality in classrooms has been associated with improved child outcomes (Pianta, et al., 2008b). A deeper knowledge of behavior change and adult learning theory may PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 47 provide a foundation for understanding how adults learn and the transfer of DAP beliefs into observable practices. Indeed, the use of the two assessment measures, the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) and the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation measure, could facilitate a better understanding of EC educator beliefs about DAP. An awareness of individual EC educator beliefs about DAP may allow for the tailoring of professional learning experiences to support EC educators individual learning goals as practices are refined. The Practice-Based Coaching model may be an effective strategy to support professional learning as it is flexible by design and has a focus on everyday teaching practices that support children’s growth and development. The cyclical feedback process of Practice-Based Coaching and the emphasis on shared goals and action planning, focused observation, and reflection and feedback (NCQTL, 2017; Snyder et al., 2015) may strengthen the transfer of DAP and inform the professional identity of EC educators. Ultimately, EC educators may be able to more clearly articulate their teaching philosophy about how children learn, and the strategies employed to meet the individual needs of young children, which may improve implementation skills and classroom process quality. Reflecting on the research and the implications for this action research study, I foresee challenges I might encounter as I implement components of the study in my program. Understanding how adults learn, I must be ever mindful that change happens over time, in small increments. Effective change requires staff have an interest and desire to participate in a process that challenges their beliefs and awareness of their individual teaching practices. As EC educators understand the role of beliefs in their teaching practices, beliefs and practices may shift. Providing EC educators with professional PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 48 learning opportunities and the support of a Practice-Based Coaching model may strengthen EC educators who are willing to participate in this collaborative process and refine DAP. The use of the assessment measures, the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) and the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation measure require proper training to administer, data collection, and interpretation of results. Results from the measures may raise awareness for program quality improvements and the strengthening of professional learning through the use of Practice-Based Coaching, ultimately changing the direction of program goals for the alignment of DAP. Limitations The sample for the study was a convenience sample of university preservice EC educators enrolled in EC education classes. As an action research study, one limitation for generalizing results is that it was done at one western state university in the United States. The TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) and the CLASS (Pianta et al., 2008a) observation measure were integrated into course assessment practices. Although preservice EC educator performance did not influence student grades, this may have led to social response bias or additional observational reactivity due to the association with the course. This study focused on the faculty prioritized DAP belief statements that best-matched department goals. A recommendation for further study would be to include all 60-statements available on the TBQ (Rimm-Kauffman et al., 2006) in the analysis. The baseline to posttest cross-sectional sample study design, limited obtaining data on individual growth over time, and how this growth is influenced by individual differences. PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 49 This information could help faculty more fully understand the processes in belief and practice change, and further differentiated curriculum and field experience supports. The scale-up and implementation of the Practice-Based Coaching model took place over two and a half years before collecting posttest data. During that time, there were other changes in the program that may have influenced DAP belief ratings and implementation practices. The lab school where study participants completed field experience made changes to adhere with NAEYC accreditation standards and obtained NAEYC accreditation. This accreditation represents the highest standard of quality in EC education programs, thus the quality of field experience classrooms increased over this time-period to meet these standards of quality. In addition, two of five faculty members changed between the baseline and posttest data collection, with new faculty proposing changes to course content that was not part of the Practice-Based Coaching model but may have contributed to the observed changes in outcomes. New courses were added to required coursework, including courses focused on emergent literacy, science technology engineering and mathematics (STEM), infant development, and program leadership. These additional courses in development, curriculum content areas, and leadership may have also contributed to observed outcomes. The EC education faculty completed and obtained the NAEYC Higher Education Programs accreditation. The accreditation self-study and evaluation process required program changes and strengthening the alignment of curriculum and assessment. The field experience mentor teachers also completed a three-semester, nine credit, EC coaching certificate, resulting in improved skills in providing preservice educators with feedback and coaching. These changes from the PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 50 baseline cohort to the posttest cohort likely supported the aims of the study and gains for preservice EC educators in the posttest cohort. Recommendations Continued research on the Practice-Based Coaching model and how to effectively implement this model to support preservice EC educators and their transition into the classrooms has the potential to strengthen this model. A longitudinal sample would allow for charting the progress of cohorts over time by supporting preservice EC educators as they move into EC in-service positions through coordination of Practice-Based Coaching supports with community partners that employ graduates. This model may be beneficial in ensuring the transfer of knowledge and alignment with the expectation of potential employers. The use of qualitative methods such as focus groups with faculty, mentor teachers, and preservice EC educators may be useful in more fully understanding unique findings and may help identify trends and beliefs about practices that are surprising to researchers. As faculty examine correlations with other beliefs and reassess if ‘best’ beliefs, in regard to those most strongly associated with findings and theory, are prioritized by preservice EC educators, modifications may be made to coursework to support the development of DAP beliefs and the implementation of DAP in the classroom. Replication of these findings by other EC education programs would provide additional support for use of the Practice-Based Coaching model. Systemic change in education may also be necessary to ensure high quality EC programming is accessible to all young children. This requires EC professionals be trained in DAP and have extensive knowledge about child development. Indeed, providing a Practice-Based Coaching model may support more opportunities for PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 51 professional learning, which may lead to higher education degrees for EC professionals, requiring higher funding levels. EC educators with higher education levels may be more effective in ensuring the transfer of learning DAP to implementing higher quality classrooms for young children. The education system in the United States must critically examine how to support the growing demand for high-quality EC programming (primarily programs for three and four-year-old children). Currently, many states in the United States do not have any state-funded EC programs and there is great disparity in the states that do offer a universal model for EC programming (Barnett et al., 2017). It is time to reassess support for EC programming and begin implementing programming to support EC education for young children. School districts may need to look at hiring qualified EC educators and begin to allocate funding, professional learning opportunities and physical space to support EC programming. For systemic change to take place, the beliefs and practices of the social systems, financial systems, political systems and even the school systems need to be challenged and enlightened about the implications for high-quality EC programming, professional learning for EC educators, and the outcomes for society. Now is the time for universal acknowledgment and acceptance of early learning for all young children. In an effort to meet the demand for high-quality EC programming for young children, current policies must also reflect the significant contributions EC educators make. The value of knowledge and competencies needed to work with children, birth through age eight, is important for the outcomes of young children (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015). PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 52 Conclusions EC educators have an enormous influence on the lives of the young children in their care. The role of EC programming is to provide healthy development and early learning environments where children thrive in high-quality care with trained professionals who embrace DAP beliefs and can effectively implement DAP (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015). As support for highly trained EC educators that provide developmentally appropriate curriculum and meet young children’s developing needs increases, preservice EC education programs are rising to meet these early learning needs. However, the nature of the problem for professional learning remains: there tends to be a gap between EC educator DAP beliefs and the implementation of practices. This study has explored how implementing a Practice-Based Coaching model across a preservice EC education higher education program may influence the beliefs and practices of preservice EC educators. Results from the baseline cohort to the posttest cohort showed gains that support the hypothesis and Practice-Based Coaching is a model worthy of continued study about the influence of ongoing coaching on the development of DAP beliefs and practices. One hope for this research is that it raises awareness of the necessity of providing preservice and in-service EC educators with ongoing individualized professional learning opportunities that support professional identity and decision-making autonomy and is anchored in adult learning theory, such as Practice-Based Coaching. Practice-Based Coaching may be used to support DAP beliefs about young children and practices that promote the healthy development of young children (Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2015). Throughout the past decade, the field of education has undergone major revisions and rethinking of best PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 53 practices to educate our children. 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Understanding how children's engagement and teachers’ interactions combine to predict school readiness, Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34(2013), 299-309. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2013.05.002 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 62 Appendix A CLASS Observation Sheet and CLASS Scoring Summary Sheet PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 63 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 64 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 65 Appendix B TBQ-sort Online Questionnaire Instrument PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 66 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 67 1/9/2018 Qualtrics Survey Software https://co1.qualtrics.com/ControlPanel/Ajax.php?action=GetSurveyPrintPreview 2/10 Male Female Early Childhood AAS Early Childhood BS (non teacher liscensure) Early Childhood Education BS (for teacher liscensure) Early Childhood Education/Elementary Education Double major (for teacher liscensure) Elementary Education K-6 (Not a double major with Early Childhood Education) Other CHF 2620 Planning Creative Experiences for Young Children CHF 4710 Advanced Guidance and Planning CHF 4711 Advanced Guidance and Planning for Teacher Education CHF 2600 Introduction to Early Childhood Education CHF 4990A Senior Seminar Other Sherrie West Cheryl Wendt Adrianna West Stephanie Szanter Sarah Biehl Letitia Teneau-Sword Don't Know Yet Community Kindergarten Classroom (please write in teacher name) I am not completing a lab/field experience in a classroom Gender My declared major is I am currently enrolled in (please check all that apply) Who is your classroom mentor teacher? Please enter the semester year and instructor for when you took CHF 2600 Introduction to Early Childhood Education? (Leave blank if you have not taken the course. If you took the course at another institution please use the name of the instructor at that institution) PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 68 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 69 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 70 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 71 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 72 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 73 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 74 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 75 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 76 Appendix C Research Approval Letters PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 77 PRACTICE-BASED COACHING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD 78