1 400M Training Program by Alex Wheeler A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION with an emphasis in SPORTS COACHING LEADERSHIP WEBER STATE UNIVERSITY Ogden, Utah December 2, 2025 Approved Chad Smith, Ph.D. Kurt Ward, Ph.D. Bryan Dowdell, Ph.D. 2 Problem Statement The 400-meter race is one of the hardest events in track and field (Ramadan, 2014). It requires a rare combination of speed, endurance, strength, and strategy. Due to its intricacies and the grueling number of aspects relevant to 400m training, there has yet to be a comprehensive framework developed that helps coaches guide their athletes. Coaches are likely to rely on subjective evidence, personal experience, or inconsistent research findings, leading to differences in training methods between coaches (Jones et al., 2009). Also, while some studies have modeled elite 400m performances, they have yet to turn that data into an evidence-based framework, highlighting the training strategies that should work for 400-meter athletes (Abiss & Laursen, 2012; Le Hyaric et al., 2024). The 400-meter is a unique event in which athletes need to be proficient in several different energy systems, including the phosphagen system, glycolytic energy systems, and aerobic energy systems, due to sprinting at near max velocity for an extended period of time (Gastin, 2012; Duffield et al., 2005). Coaches who aren’t aware of current practices within 400meter training tend to neglect important aspects of practice, including proper energy system development, race strategies, and recovery, leading to poor coaching of their athletes (Fields, n.d.). Furthermore, variations in training or lack of knowledge of periodization can lead to deficits in performance, largely due to overtraining, burnout, and injury (Molopyane, 2020). Developing a 400-meter framework is an excellent way to avoid the possible damage athletes may sustain from inadequate coaching. Previous research has studied different aspects of the 400-meter dash, such as the effects of anaerobic and aerobic training methods (Duffield et al., 2005; Zouhal et al., 2010), the biomechanics of sprinting (Hanon & Gajer, 2009), or race strategies (Willis et al., 2012). 3 However, this knowledge has yet to be conveyed in a cumulative framework. Also, previous research articles tend to separate these specific training areas, rather than looking at them in combination (Gorostiaga et al., 2010). Due to this, coaches are left to rely on trial-and-error and anecdotal evidence for how they should structure their daily, weekly, or monthly training plans (Jones et al., 2009). The aim of this project is to create a viable training plan that combines multiple different methods of training from previous research into one cumulative framework that can be used as a guide for 400-meter coaches. By combining all aspects of 400-meter training into one model including workout types, biomechanics, and periodization, this framework should serve as a guide for coaches to enhance athletic performance while avoiding overtraining and minimizing risk of injury. Literature Review The 400m race consists of 1 lap around a track, or 2 laps on an indoor track. Due to the length of the race, the physiological demands are different for this event than almost any other event in track and field. An in-depth training plan is especially important for 400m runners, as it allows coaches to make sure they are working on all of the essential aspects of the 400m race. This literature review aims to highlight the most crucial aspects of 400m training, and show how they can be used in tandem to create an extensive training plan. Physiological Demands of the 400m Race Energy System Contributions The energy system contributions during a 400m race are what makes creating an in-depth and viable training plan so difficult. The 400m race has been shown to use phosphagen system, 4 glycolytic system, and aerobic energy systems. In a 400m race, athletes tend to reach their max speed within the first 50-75 meters of the race, meaning the phosphagen system is only used for those first few seconds (Harman, 2002; Hirvonen et al., 1992). After that point, the glycolytic, or oxidative systems provide the majority of energy used. Both Duffield et al. (2005) and Spencer and Gastin (2001) have shown that the anaerobic energy system contributes roughly 55-60% of the energy throughout the race, while the aerobic energy system contributes the other 40-45%. Other researchers have shown that anaerobic contributions can increase to as much as 63%, with aerobic contributions dropping to roughly 37% (Hill, 1999; Zouhal et al., 2010). Le Hyaric et al. (2024) had an interesting find in their study. While modelling 400m races of world-class athletes, they found anaerobic contributions to be upwards of 75%, while aerobic contributions were generally less than 25%. They postulate that the faster the athlete is, the greater the anaerobic contribution will be, and vice versa for slower athletes. As shown by the previously mentioned authors, each energy system plays an important role in running an effective 400m race. A successful training plan will utilize workouts that develop all three of these energy systems, leading to a developed athlete that is well-versed in each system. Biomechanical Requirements Previous research has identified some of the important biomechanical contributions to 400m running. Stride length (SL), stride frequency (SF), and running velocity (RV) have been shown as significant aspects of the 400m. Numela et al. (1996) has shown that SL, SF, and RV reach peak values in the first 50m of the race, and gradually decrease afterwards throughout the remainder of the race. Hanon and Gajer (2005) have proven similar results, with peak RV being 5 achieved in the first 50-100m, and peak SF being achieved in the first 50-150m. These studies show that, while acceleration plays such a little part in the race, it is important that athletes achieve their max RV early in the race so they can execute proper race strategy. Hobara et al. (2010) explored the relationship between RV, vertical stiffness (VS), SF, and SL with 400m running. The study illustrated that in order to maintain RV at the end of a 400m race, holding a greater SF through preserving VS is necessary. Hobara et al. (2010) found that a decrease in VS is related to increases in fatigue. Therefore, one way to train for maintaining VS at the end of a race may be to do workouts that exhaust the athlete, so they can practice maintaining VS. Also, despite previous studies showing a relationship between SL and VS, this specific study shows no relationship between the two. Lastly, Nian et al. (2021) identifies the most important strength muscles for 400m runners. Nian et al. (2021) recognized the gastrocnemius medial head, biceps femoris, medial femoris, and lateral femoris as the 4 most prominent muscles for 400m runners. Coaches should look to train these muscles often, as they play the largest role in competition for their athletes. Injury Analysis Injuries play a large role in track and field. According to Edouard et al. (2023), over 95% of athletes have reported at least 1 injury complaint during their athletics career. On top of that, 61% of athletes report at least one injury per year. If coaches are aware of what injuries are most common, and what methods these injuries come from, they can work to create a program that mitigates the risk of injury. Based on previous studies, the areas most likely for injury in track and field sprinters tend to be the lower limb or thigh area (Edouard et al., 2019; Edouard et al., 2023). Edouard et al., 6 (2019) also found that 52% of injuries in males and 37% in females occurred in the thigh area. Findings by Edouard et al. (2023) aligned with those previously mentioned, proving that over 33% of injuries in sprinters were of the hamstring alone. Edouard et al. (2022) also found the hamstring to be the most injured muscle, with over 20% of athletes sustaining at least one hamstring injury per season. Some studies showed conflicting results on whether the majority of the injuries sustained in sprinters were acute or overuse injuries. The study by Edouard et al. (2019) established that the majority of injuries sustained were due to overuse or overtraining, with 42% in males and 50% in females. However, the study by Edouard et al. (2023) showed that the majority of injuries in sprinters were acute and had a sudden onset. Despite these differences, one thing remains the same: lower limb injuries, especially those of the hamstring, tend to be the ones that affect sprinters the most. Because of this, coaches need to be aware of their athlete’s hamstring health. Training Components of the 400m Race Various studies have identified the most important aspects of 400m training. Based on those studies, these components seem to be the ones found most often in training plans: acceleration, speed, speed endurance, special endurance 1 and 2, intensive and extensive tempo, race modeling, and rest or recovery (Hart, n.d.; Lee, 2018; Roberts, n.d.; Wineberg, 2020). Acceleration Acceleration development for 400m runners consists of runs up to 50m, generally starting from a three- or four-point stance, or coming out of the blocks. Every run should be done at max velocity, which also means athletes should be taking ample recovery in between reps. A few 7 common types of exercises to work on acceleration include hill runs and weighted sled pulls. (Roberts, n.d.; Wineberg, 2020) Speed Speed workouts are typically done to help an athlete increase their max velocity. These workouts are similar to acceleration ones, as repetitions should be completed at full speed, with ample recovery time. Reps for speed workouts generally are 30-80m long as well, and can include things such as fly’s, hill runs, and bungee pulls. (Roberts, n.d.: Wineberg, 2020) Speed Endurance Speed endurance consists of runs between 40-150m, working at either high or full intensity, depending on the distance of the run (Roberts, n.d.; Wineberg, 2020). Rest times are generally pretty short, in an attempt to build lactic acid in the muscles. Hart (n.d.) has a slightly different approach to speed endurance than others do. Hart (n.d.), a legendary sprints coach for Baylor University, believes speed endurance includes runs upwards of 600 meters, with rest periods of 5-10 minutes. These repetitions will also be done slightly slower than high/full intensity due to distance. Hart’s difference in his definition of speed endurance is most likely attributable to his overarching philosophy that greater training volume is better for 400m runners. Special Endurance 1 and 2 Wineberg (2020) describes special endurance 1 as reps between 150-300m at a high intensity pace, with rest ranging from 5-10 minutes. These runs are important, as they are designed to help improve anaerobic power, and the ability to maintain near top-end speed during a race. 8 Special endurance 2 is similar to special endurance 1, but rep ranges are longer, often 300-600 meters. Because of the increase in volume, rest periods are longer as well, usually varying from 10-20 minutes (Wineberg, 2020). Special endurance 2 runs work the lactate system in a similar manner to special endurance 1 workouts, but are designed to help you run at near top-end speed for even longer distances, making them extremely useful for 400m runners. Some coaches tend to merge special endurance 1 and 2 together into one kind of workout, known just as special endurance (Lee, 2018; Roberts, n.d.). Lee (2018) describes special endurance as runs between 15 and 40 seconds, but only range up to 350m at the longest. This type of special endurance resembles that of special endurance 1. The way Roberts (n.d.) describes his version of special endurance more so represents special endurance 2, with repetitions lasting anywhere from 300-600 meters. Intensive and Extensive Tempo Tempo workouts are generally done in an attempt to help boost the aerobic capacity of athletes, help shorten their recovery time, help the athletes work on their rhythm while running, and help them to complete longer workouts in the future (Hart, n.d.). There are two types of tempo workouts generally used, intensive and extensive tempo. Wineberg (2020) describes intensive tempo as workouts are done at 80-90% pace, with rest times ranging from 30 seconds, all the way up to 5 minutes depending on the distance of the reps. Distances of reps are usually greater than 80 meters, and total volume for an intensive tempo workout varies between 800 and 2800 meters. Extensive tempo is slightly different than intensive tempo. Extensive tempo workouts are done at a slightly slower pace, generally 70-80%, but rest times are shorter, usually between 30 9 and 90 seconds (Wineberg, 2020). The total volume for extensive tempo workouts is also usually longer, ranging from 1400-3000 meters. Hart (n.d.) and Lee (2018) don’t differentiate between intensive and extensive tempo in their programs, but rather put both under the umbrella of tempo runs or tempo endurance. Hart (n.d.) emphasizes that rest times should range from 2-3 minutes, meaning that tempo should be done at roughly 75-85%. Lee (2018) makes an interesting point. He says that tempo runs should generally be done on a grass surface. Since the volume of tempo runs are so high compared to other workouts, coaches often do tempo runs on a softer surface to help decrease the amount of force that the athletes’ legs take in any given workout. This tends to help decrease the amount of overuse injuries from a high volume of training, such as shin splints or stress fractures. Race Pacing Race pacing, otherwise known as energy distribution or race modeling, has been identified as a large factor in 400m races. Martin-Acero et al. (2017) conducted a study in which they identified the best pacing strategy for 400m runners to be self-selected, based off of the athletes best 200m time. For this strategy, athletes take their best 200m time, add 1 second to it, and that new time is the pace they should aim to run during the first 200m of the 400m race. Willis et al. (2012) found similar results in their study as well. They believe that maximizing velocity early in the race, and attempting to limit the falloff as the race progresses is the most effective race strategy. They also have shown that an athlete’s 200m personal best (PB) is intricately linked to your 400m PB, so one way to increase your 400m PB is increase max velocity and lower your 200m PB. 10 Le Hyaric et al. (2024) conducted a study where they researched the best 400m performances from the European Athletics Championships in 2022. In this study, they found results similar to those of Willis et al. (2009). Of the athletes researched, maximum velocity was achieved in the first 50m, and followed a slight decrease for the remainder of the race. In this study, they also ran simulations to identify what kind of strategy would result in the fastest time. The simulation that produced the fastest time happened when the athlete increased their anaerobic energy roughly five percent, showing that the faster the athlete is able to reach max velocity in the race (while still being able to limit deficits later on), the faster the overall race will be. These studies show how much of an emphasis needs to be put on pacing strategy, or race modeling, for 400m runners. Without executing a near perfect race, athletes will not be able to achieve the times that they are capable of running. This is different from the other sprint events, where modeling race strategy isn’t quite as important, due to the fact that athletes are working much closer to their max velocity for the entire race. Rest/Recovery Despite there being very little research done on recovery and rest days for 400m runners, rest and recovery is always built into a 400m program, and is just as important, if not more important, than the other components of a 400m training plan. Without taking proper rest days, athletes are not able to complete workouts to the best of their ability, often ruining important workouts. In addition, improper recovery is also a cause for frequent overuse injuries in athletes, such as shin splints and stress fractures. 11 It is important to note that recovery days don’t always mean not working out (Molopyane, 2020). Depending on the time of season, recovery days can include light workouts. For example, in program plans that Lee (2018) and Hart (n.d.) put together, some recovery days include shorter tempo runs, or even some cross country running. The most important part of recovery is that the athletes’ muscles are getting a break from extensive workouts, that way they can continue to put in work throughout the week. Some other common methods of recovery include pool workouts (doing drills in the pool, or swimming in general), a warmup with some strides, or a foam rolling session. Periodization for the 400m 400m coaches generally follow similar ideas when building a plan for their athletes. According to Molopyane (2020), coaches should begin with a multi-year training plan. After analyzing their athletes’ goals, they determine whether it is necessary to develop a multi-year plan or not. At the collegiate and high school level, multi-year plans aren’t generally necessary, so coaches move down to the next step, which is an annual plan. Annual plans are designed to last the length of an entire year’s worth of training. At the college level, that generally will be a full year, or 12 months. Macrocycles are the next level below annual plans. They tend to last between 16 and 21 weeks, and are intended to meet specific goals or targets within an annual plan (Molopyane, 2020). Macrocycles are then divided into mesocycles. Mesocycles are a group of training blocks that can be broken down into four specific phases: general preparatory phase (GPP), specific preparatory phase (SPP), competition phase, and transition phase. These individual phases generally last between 4-6 weeks, and are intended to target specific areas of training for the athletes (Anderson, n.d.; Johnson, n.d.; Molopyane, 2020). According to Anderson (n.d.), general 12 preparation is aimed for speed development, acceleration development, power and strength development, and intensive/extensive tempo. Track and Field Coach (n.d.) follows a similar plan in their GPP, generally targeting strength and endurance for two and a half weeks, speed and power for two and a half weeks, and the sixth week being used as a testing week. The SPP is where the athletes work to develop aspects of 400m training that are specific to the 400m race. This includes technique runs, speed, lactate capacity, short speed endurance, and special endurance 1 and 2 (Johnson, n.d.) The competition phase is used to help prepare athletes for the upcoming competition. Types of workouts done during this period include race modeling, special endurance 2, speed endurance, and technique (Johnson, n.d.). Acceleration and speed development are also done in this phase. Lastly, the transition phase is used to help athletes transition between phases within macrocycles (Johnson, n.d.). These phases give athletes physical and mental rest and recovery so they can move from a competition phase back into a GPP for another macrocycle. All 4 different types of mesocycles are important, as they work different aspects that are all critical to 400m training. Coaches should look to use target all 4 blocks at appropriate times of the year to maximize performance for their athletes. Microcycles are the most basic level of planning when it comes to periodization. Microcycles fall under mesocycles, and are used to target very specific objectives. These cycles generally last between a few days and two weeks (Molopyane, 2020). These microcycles tend to contain the actual workouts that are completed throughout the week, while mesocyles and macrocycles tend to just contain the overarching type of workout that is to be completed. 13 Annual plans tend to follow similar structure as far as when GPP, SPP, competition phases, and transition phases will occur. The two following figures show examples of how an annual plan may be structured (see figures 1 and 2). Figure 1 Example of an annual periodization plan (Adapted from Anderson (n.d.)) Figure 2 Example of an annual periodization plan (Adapted from Molopyane (2020)) Principle of Individuality The principle of individuality plays a large role in track and field. Despite athletes often sharing physical characteristics such as height, weight, and body composition, no two athletes will respond the same to training (Berstein, n.d.; Franca et al., 2022). Because of this, it is 14 important that each individual is recognized when creating a training plan. While it is impossible to create an individual training plan for each athlete, coaches must look to find similar deficiencies between athletes that they can look to train for during practice. Conclusion The literature shows that a 400m training plan is very nuanced, requiring careful consideration to appropriately train an athlete. With both speed and endurance playing a large role in the 400m race, athletes need a balance of work on both their aerobic and anaerobic systems, with faster athletes often relying more on speed than endurance. Effective training plans should include components such as speed development, acceleration development, racing and pacing strategies, and strength training. Coaches who aren’t aware of the intricacies of building a 400m training plan may create a plan that won’t prepare their athlete for peak performance, and may lead to injury over time. Methods and Design While previous research has identified the most important aspects of 400m training (Duffield et al., 2005; Hanon & Gajer, 2009; Willis et al., 2012; Zouhal et al., 2010), researchers have failed to combine the results of their studies into an overarching, comprehensive workout plan that utilizes all the different aspects of 400m training. For this project, I have taken the training methods previous researchers have identified, as well as knowledge I have from my years as a collegiate runner and coach, and combined them into a year-long training plan specialized for collegiate runners. To start, I took the 2024-2025 track and field schedule for Weber State University, and used it to build the training plan. Important aspects of their schedule that I have identified are the 15 start days for practice, dead periods (when they aren’t allowed to have scheduled team practice), school breaks (fall break, spring break, Christmas break, holidays, etc.), travel days for competition, and scheduled track meets. After identifying those important dates, I created a calendar with all the important dates listed. After that, I proceeded to break down the calendar into macro, meso, and microcycles. This helped me identify the phase that the athletes will be in during that time of year, as well as the types of workouts that need to be completed during that phase. After creating the calendar, I wrote the type of workout that is to be completed each day throughout the annual plan. This includes acceleration, speed, speed endurance, special endurance 1 and 2, intensive and extensive tempo, race modeling, and rest or recovery. I believe it is more important to highlight the type of workout to be completed each day rather than the specifics of each workout, because as a coach, you will have to make adjustments on the fly to the workout depending on how your athletes are feeling, how they are handling the workout, or anything else that may come up. The calendar that I created can be found in Appendix A. The next section of my program design was workouts that can be completed within each individual type of workout. I structured the program this way to give coaches some freedom with what they do as far as exact workout. Coaches will have a better idea of the exact needs of their athlete, and because of that, will have a greater knowledge of the exact workout that they need that day. Listing the exact workout to be completed puts coaches and athletes into a box that makes it hard to thrive. The list of workouts that can be completed for each training component can be found in Appendix B. 16 Earlier in my literature review, I highlighted the importance of race pacing for athletes that run the 400m. For that reason, I have also created an example pacing chart that can be used to identify times that should be run in practice. In order for athletes to get used to running at a specified pace, coaches should use a pacing chart to identify the correct times that should be run during workouts, and hold their athletes to the standard of hitting the given time. The more opportunities that athletes get running at the correct pace will make them better at identifying what their race pace should be in competition. The pacing chart that I created can be found in Appendix C1 and C2. Lastly, I created a compact yearly plan in the form of a small table. This yearly plan still contains all the important information that is listed in the monthly calendar, including the week of the training year, the microcycle the athletes are in, the specific phase the athletes are in, and important competition dates, but doesn’t list the specific workout type to be completed each day. This table can be a good tool for coaches to keep on them so they can make quick note of some of the things that may affect practice for that day, week, or cycle. This compact table can be found in Appendix D. 17 References Abbiss, C. R., & Laursen, P. B. (2012). Describing and understanding pacing strategies during athletic competition. Sports Medicine, 38(3), 239–252. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256200838030-00004 Anderson, V. (n.d.). General preparation & skill acquisition https://na.eventscloud.com/file_uploads/60f2657c87cdedb01e4566dfba2fbc3a_VinceAnd erson-EarlySeasonTrainingEssentials.pdf Bernstein, S. (n.d.). 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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(9), 2309–2315. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181e31287 22 Appendix A 23 24 25 26 27 28 Appendix B Intensive Tempo Workout Rest 3 x (300 + 100) 90 sec between reps, 3-6 min Extra explanation, if needed between sets 2-3 (350 + 250 + 150) 3-5 min between reps, 6-8 min between sets 1-2 x (200 + 300 + 400 + 300 3-5 min between reps, 8-10 + 200) min set break 5 x 300 4-6 min between reps 3 x (200 + 200 + 200) 2-3 min between reps, 8-10 min between sets 600 + 600 + (300 + 300 + 8 min after 600’s, 60-90 sec 600’s are tempo pace, first set 300) + (300 + 300 + 300) between first set of 300’s, 8 of 300’s are slow, second set min set break, 5 min between of 300’s are fast last set of 300’s 500 + 500 + 300 + 300 + 300 5-8 min after 500’s, 3-5 min after 300’s Extensive Tempo 10 x 200 60-90 sec between reps 8 x 300 90-120 sec between reps 29 3 x (4 x 150’s) 45-90 sec between reps, 2-5 min set break Any sort of HIIT (High Athletes break up running Intensity Interval training) with different types of exercise 6 x 250 60 sec – 2 min between reps 4-6 x 300 Walk back rest Alternating running fast and slow every 50m Special Endurance 1 3 x 250 6-10 min between reps 2-3 x 300 10-12 min rest 200 + 150 + 120 6-8 min between reps 3 x 220 8-12 min rest 280 + 250 + 220 10-12 min rest Special Endurance 2 3 x 350 10-15 min rest 350 + 320 + 250 10-15 min rest 2 x 450 12-20 min rest 450 + 350 12-15 min rest 500 + 400 + 300 12-5 min rest 450 + (200 + 200) 15-20 min after 450, 5-8 between 200’s 30 Speed Flying sprints Full Recovery Small run into the sprint Full Recovery Sprinting broken up by small 10m-80m Sprint, float, sprint periods of “floating” Alternating blocks and fly’s Full Recovery Overspeed training Full Recovery Downhill runs, or bungee runs Hill sprints Full Recovery Acceleration Falling Starts Full Recovery Sled Pulls Full Recovery 3-point Starts Full Recovery Block Starts Full Recovery Hill Sprints Full Recovery Alternating Blocks and Sled Full Recovery Pulls Alternating Blocks and Fly’s Full Recovery Resisted Starts Full Recovery Speed Endurance 4-5 x 150 4-6 min between reps 3 x 180 6-8 min rest 31 180 + 150 + 120 + 80 4-8 min rest 80 + 120 + 150 +120 + 80 4-6 min rest 3 x 160 6-8 min rest 60 + 80 + 100 + 80 + 60 4-6 min rest Race Modeling Split 400 45-90 sec between reps, 8-20 min between sets Split 300 45-90 sec between reps, 8-12 min between sets Split 500 60-90 sec between reps, 1220 between sets 3x150 3 min between reps 3x200 4 min between reps 32 Appendix C1 33 Appendix C2 34 Appendix D