Vincent C. Bates, Ph.D. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM By Jonathan Hair A project submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION IN CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION WEBER STATE UNIVERSITY Ogden, Utah August 7, 2020 Approved DeeDee Mower DeeDee Mower, Ph.D. Stephen S. Francis, Ph.D. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 2 Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude for those who have inspired me to seek a Master’s degree. The decision to study historiography began at Maryville High School. I am thankful for Ms. Brooke Wilson, my AP United States history teacher who ignited my interest in history and historiography and for Dr. Penny Ferguson who taught me to pursue the life of the mind and be enthusiastic for academic achievement. I am grateful for Dr. Andrew Huebner at the University of Alabama who guided me as I studied history at a deeper level. I am deeply grateful for all of my professors at Weber State University. However, several professors greatly influenced and aided this project. The project would not have been possible without my chair, Dr. Vincent C. Bates. His guidance lit the path for my project and his questions led me to think critically about historiography. Dr. Stephen S. Francis provided unmatched knowledge of historiography and how I could transfer it between history and education. Dr. DeeDee Mower offered helpful insight into the critical intersection of historiography and history education. Finally, I would like to thank my family. I am grateful for my wife Victoria who has helped support me these past four years. She has been patient as I attended night class after night class and she has helped motivate me to keep going even when it was hard. I would also like to thank my cat Cleo for sitting beside me and keeping my feet warm as I worked on this project. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 3 Table of Contents NATURE OF THE PROBLEM......................................................................................... 6 Literature Review .................................................................................................. 8 Historiography and Its Purposes ................................................................. 8 The Birth of Modern Historiography .......................................................... 8 The Linguistic Turn ................................................................................... 10 The Social Turn ......................................................................................... 11 The Cultural Turn ...................................................................................... 12 Teacher Preparation in Historiography ....................................................... 13 A Lack of Required Historiography in the State of Utah ............................. 15 The History Wars and National History Standards ...................................... 16 Historiography in Textbooks ...................................................................... 17 A Pedagogical Content Knowledge for History .......................................... 18 The Damage Currently Caused ................................................................... 19 PURPOSE ......................................................................................................................... 21 METHOD ......................................................................................................................... 23 A CLASSROOM GUIDE FOR HISTORIOGRAPHY IN LESSON PLANNING ............. 25 A Look at Historiography in the Classroom ........................................................... 25 School of Historiography ....................................................................................... 27 Empirical Historiography ........................................................................... 27 Great Man Historiography.......................................................................... 28 Whiggish Historiography ........................................................................... 29 American Consensus School of Historiography .......................................... 31 Marxist Historiography .............................................................................. 32 Annales School Historiography .................................................................. 33 Social Historiography................................................................................. 34 Feminist Historiography ............................................................................. 36 Postmodern Historiography ........................................................................ 37 HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 4 Incorporating Historiography in the Classroom ...................................................... 38 LESSON PLANS .............................................................................................................. 39 Lesson Plan 1: Introduction to Historiography ....................................................... 39 Lesson Plan 2: Great Man Historiography and the Annales School ........................ 42 Lesson Plan 3: The Great Depression and Marxist Historiography ......................... 45 Lesson Plan 4: World War II and the American Consensus School ........................ 47 Lesson Plan 5: The Fifties and Feminist Historiography ........................................ 49 Lesson Plan 6: The Black Power Movement and Social Historiography ................. 52 Lesson Plan 7: Living History and Postmodern Historiography .............................. 53 Lesson Plan 8: The United States and Whiggish Historiography ............................ 57 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................... 59 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 61 HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 5 Abstract Historiography is a vital part of the discipline of history. It is a collection of historical methods and interpretations. There have been major developments in historiography in the last 70 years that have not been reflected in the secondary classroom. Educators have not been prepared in teacher education programs and are not required by state standards to include instruction in historiography in classrooms. The absence is historiography is even more apparent when considering the changes in the field brought about by the Linguistic, Social and Cultural Turns. In order to introduce historiography to teachers who can introduce it to students, a guide has been developed. This guide summarizes different schools of historiography ranging from more traditional school such as empirical and Great Man History, to more recent schools of historiography such as postmodern and feminist historiography. Eight lesson plans have also been developed to demonstrate to educators how to incorporate historiography into an 11th grade United States History classroom. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 6 NATURE OF THE PROBLEM Historiography is the way history is constructed, analyzed and attributed (Buchannon, 2018; Popkin, 2016). Historiography shapes historical narrative, ownership of society, and national identity (Popkin, 2016; Bentley, 1999; Iggers, 1997). When history was first professionalized in the nineteenth-century, Leopold Von Ranke, widely considered the father of modern historiography, and others conceived it as a process-based social science (Popkin, 2016; Iggers, 1997). As decades passed, the French Annalistes, American Consensus School, and others began to create a twentieth-century historiography (Popkin, 2016; Iggers, 1997). The goals of these methods of historiography are consistently found in classrooms over a hundred years after they were first used (Levstik, 2000). During the last sixty years, the discipline of history, especially historiography has changed, mostly due to shifts in postmodern thought. First, the linguistic turn, led by the postmodern movement has changed the epistemology of history, using new methods to create historical understanding (Foucault, 2002; Derrida, 1976). Also, the social turn, has merged traditional historiographical methods with new methods borrowed from the social sciences (Popkin, 2016; Appleby 1997; Cohen and Zunz, 1985; Hughes, 1960). New focuses on class, gender, and global history democratized the field of history as well (Popkin, 2016; Gaffield, 2005). A third historiographical shift led to the cultural turn, which was influenced greatly by anthropology since 1980 (Depkat, 2009; Gaffield, 2005). These trends have led to more social and cultural histories being written since the beginning of the 1960s (Popkin, 2016). Despite the development of newer methods in historiography, many teachers and students fail to examine the construction of history and epistemology that goes into a historical narrative’s creation (McCrum, 2013). One reason leading to a lack of historiographical practice in Utah HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 7 schools is that the Utah State Board of Education does not require teacher candidates to have an extensive background in history in order to be a teacher at the secondary level (Utah State Board of Education [USBE], 2019). Additionally, state legislatures and school boards continue to dictate state standards for history that do not acknowledge the changes in the field (Popkin, 2016; Vansledright, 2008; Kornblith & Lasser, 2007). Finally, state-certified teachers who have not had historiographical experience teach inadequate historiography or no historiography at all (Brown & Hughes, 2018, McCrum 2013; Yilmaz, 2008). The development of history lessons incorporating modern historiography is imperative for several reasons. First, incorporating historiographical practices increases higher-level thinking (Schneider and Zakai, 2016; Newman; 2014; Calder, 2006; Wineburg, 1991) Second, historiography must be attached to commonly use primary sources in order to apply critical theory to history education (Salinas et al., 2012) and create deeper historical knowledge (Schuul, 2012). Third, as the diversity of American students increases, a more modern and representative historiography can be used to increase student engagement and success (Kucan & Cho, 2018; Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Halvorson et. Al., 2016; Sampson & Garrison-Wade, 2011). Finally, the implementation of modern methods of historiography are necessary because state standards are beginning to incorporate historiographical requirements and there is a lack of standards-based curriculum meeting these new requirements (e.g., Davis School District, 2020; Utah State Board of Education, 2016). HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 8 Literature Review Historiography and Its Purposes As a discipline, history not only requires knowledge of the proverbial “names and dates,” but it is also dependent upon historical skills. One of these skills is historiography. According to Popkin (2016), historiography is “the various methods historians use in gathering data, analyzing it, and communicating it” (p. 3). In other words, historiography is the making of history. A historian takes a specific approach to create history. However, the historiographical approach can be manipulated to serve multiple purposes, especially as a required course in secondary schools. Traditionally in the history classroom testing was used to separate the class into percentiles (Wineburg, 2018). History was reduced to multiple choice questions that required students to memorize facts rather than apply historiography (Wineburg, 2018; Wineburg, Smith, & Breakstone 2018). History was often used and is still used to create national identity as a tool of the state (Wineburg, 2018; Popkin, 2016; Symcox & Wilschut, 2009). This aspect of history has been used by many historians to promote nationalism, most notably by historians in colonial powers of the 19th and early 20th centuries (Popkin, 2016; de Certeau, 1992). Oppressors with a written history can present an all-encompassing narrative of the past while erasing the oral traditions and hidden histories of the oppressed (de Certeau, 1992). This purpose is readily apparent in public education as seen in state social studies standards (e.g., USBE, 2016). Eliminating the voices of the oppressed is undergirded with older forms of historiography that are often used in the classroom. Birth of Modern Historiography History as a profession emerged during the nineteenth century in Germany. Leopold von Ranke, a German historian at the University of Berlin, began the modern study of history HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 9 (Popkin, 2016; Bentley, 1999). Popkin (2016) states, history was developed by von Ranke as the “supreme method for the understanding of human life” (p. 76). Von Ranke suggested that in order “to show what actually happened” (Popkin, 2016, p. 76), primary sources should be read and analyzed. This practice was a departure from earlier historiography that either applied contemporary judgement to the past or wrote history as fable (Popkin, 2016). The discipline of history moved away from lecture, and classes became seminars based around the reading and analysis of sources (Popkin, 2016). Additionally, von Ranke’s scholarship led to the creation of historical societies in Europe and the United States (Popkin, 2016). At the turn of the twentieth century, history as a modern discipline had been established. However, there were soon to be drastic changes in the field. In France, the Annales school began to interpret the past with a holistic approach (Popkin, 2016; Bentley, 1999). History was created by looking at all levels of society instead of just political history (Popkin, 2016). Social history found a new importance (Popkin, 2016), and history came to be interpreted in new ways. For example, some Annales-school historians began to conceive history as existing on many different timelines (Iggers, 1997), three in particular: “the almost stationary time of the Mediterranean…, the slow time of changes in social and economic structures…, and the fast time of political events” (p. 57). Later these ideas would be expanded on by Foucault (Iggers, 1997). Overall, the changes started by the Annales schools would lead to later changes in historiography after the Second World War. Historiography has changed at a more accelerated pace during the post-World War II period. A tradition of political, diplomatic, and military history has become less popular as there has been a higher priority on cultural and social history (Popkin, 2016). Influenced by anthropology, sociology, gender studies, African American studies, and others, new methods HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 10 were developed to tell the story of everyday persons (Popkin, 2016). Non-traditional scholars started many of these new historical methods. However, this democratization of the field of history began with an epistemological shift in how history is constructed. (Bentley, 1999) The Linguistic Turn The first major change in modern historiography is known as the linguistic turn. Based on developments in the discipline of philosophy, the linguistic turn reduced definitions and word usage to their historical contexts and explained the relationship between knowledge and power (Popkin, 2016; Bentley, 1999). Historiography after the linguistic turn often focuses more on the context of the text than it had previously, whether it is analyzed from a linguistic approach or not (Popkin, 2016; Bentley, 1999). One of the great influences on the linguistic turn in history is Michel Foucault. Foucault’s Epistemes situate knowledge as a construct of its historical and societal context (2002). Diverse knowledge in a historical era is constructed using the same epistemology (Foucault, 2002). How humans understood society in 1850 is impossible to fully understand as a historian in the 21st century. Foucault described the issue thus: “All knowledge is rooted in a life, a society, and a language that have a history; and it is in that very history that knowledge finds the element enabling it to communicate with other forms of life, other types of society, other significations” (2002). For historians, this process of constructing knowledge means that one person from one time cannot display a universal truth (Bentley, 1999). This new paradigm changes historiography drastically as “grand narratives” are discarded and diverse perspectives are sought. Foucault (2002) stated that history traditionally “was conceived of as a vast historical stream, uniform in each of its points, drawing with it in one and the same current, in one and the same fall or ascension, or cycle, all men, and with them things and animals, every living or inert being, even HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 11 the most unmoved aspects of the earth” (p. 401). As historiography has developed, these universal narratives fell apart from critical approaches such as the linguistic turn. In addition to Foucault’s contextual epistemology of knowledge and truth, Jacques Derrida also influenced the linguistic turn of historiography. Derrida’s contribution lies within his work, Of Grammatology (1976). Words, both written and spoken are not just the signifier for a signified (a concept, item, or process), but can change across contexts (Derrida, 1976). Since each person can use the same signifier for a slightly different signified, there cannot be one all- encompassing narrative (Derrida, 1976). A historical signifier is going to be interpreted differently by three different historians whether they are from the same time or have the same research backgrounds. While some historians argue that Derrida’s conclusions delegitimize history (Kleinfield, 2007), his philosophy led to a historiography that was democratizing, aimed at raising the voices of all genders, races, classes, and sexual orientations (Popkin, 2016; Spiegel, 2007; Bentley, 1999). The Social Turn During the 1960s and 1970s, there were many popular mass movements marshalled by diverse leaders. Combined with changes due to the linguistic turn, the momentum of these mass movements started a social turn (Popkin, 2016). New methods were highlighted during the social turn; research was done using quantitative data from the disciplines of economics, sociology, anthropology, political science, geography, and demography (Popkin, 2016; Appleby 1997). The social turn added scientific methods and evidence to historical analysis (Zunz, 1985). These methods allowed for new non-traditional histories to be written. For example, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom used demography to argue that, “blacks had been able to form family units even under slavery and that the breakdown of the family in impoverished urban ghettoes HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 12 was a recent development” (Popkin, 2016, p. 132). However, new social approaches to historiography often relied on unrepresentative data and incomplete records (Popkin, 2016). One such example of an incomplete history based solely on quantitative data is Time on the Cross (Popkin, 2016). In this study, historians Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman argued that, based on quantitative evidence, physical punishment was infrequent during the period of American slavery (Popkin, 2016). Many other historians responded that the data was a small subset, and that the quantification of punishment could not account for the psychological trauma caused (Popkin, 2016). While quantitative data can raise the voices of the silenced, sample availability and selection can easily lead to unrepresentative perspectives on the past. As a result of these new methods and other events, viewpoints previously ignored received more scholarly attention after the social turn (Popkin, 2016). For example, in American history, black history began to rise in popularity as a result of the Black Power movement of the late 1960s (Popkin, 2016). Similarly, second-wave feminism increased the academic library of women’s history (Popkin, 2016). Histories based around class-identification grew as well (Iggers, 1997). These varied voices first emerged out of social science, using demography and economic records to reveal the history (Popkin, 2016). However, these methods quickly fell out of favor as a third interpretation of historiography emerged (Iggers, 1997). The Cultural Turn Drawing inspiration from anthropology, historiography developed a cultural turn beginning in the 1980s (Popkin, 2016; Gaffield, 2005; Iggers, 1997). The democratization of the social turn combined with the philosophical underpinnings of the linguistic turn in order to create a new approach that interpreted history as a series of relationships and the power inherent in those relationships (Iggers, 1997). However, the roots of the cultural turn in American history are HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 13 much deeper. Beginning in the 1930s and 1940s American historian Caroline Ware began to create a cultural approach to American history during several panels held by the American Historical Association [AHA] (Cook and Glickman, 2008). The ideas of the masses were used to justify the political history written by consensus historians of the 1950s, but were reinterpreted in the light of the linguistic and social turns (Cook and Glickman, 2008). Clifford Geertz, an American anthropologist, stated that history was, “not an experimental science in search of law, but an interpretative one in search of meaning” (Popkin, 2016, p. 135). Histories were written about many events, focusing on the cultural implications of those events (Bentley, 1999). Meaning was created rather than existing as reality (Gaffield, 2005). In order to define, contextualize, and analyze cultural history, historians created new methods of cultural historiography that integrated previous historiographical movements (Cook and Glickman, 2008). While many historians adapted to the linguistic turn, the social turn, and the cultural turn, state educational leadership and the public were not as quick to change. Teacher Preparation in Historiography While historiography has developed greatly as the foundation for historical studies, teachers seem underprepared to educate students about historiography. Teacher education programs do not fully prepare teacher candidates to integrate historiography in the classroom. For instance, in the state of Colorado, teacher candidates only need six hours of history credits to earn an endorsement for social studies (Colorado Department of Education [CDE], 2019). Three hours must be in United States history and the other three hours must be in world history (CDE, 2019). There is no requirement for any classes in historiography (CDE, 2019). Similarly, in Nevada teacher candidates only need six hours of history credit (Nevada State Legislature, HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 14 2018). In Utah, teacher candidates are required to have fifteen hours of credit; six hours in United States history, six hours in world history, and three hours in Utah history (USBE, 2019). These hours are the minimum required and individuals may receive more instruction in history, especially when working through a university program. However, this does not necessarily lead to teacher candidates gaining more exposure to historiography. Within the state of Utah many future educators decide to forego a history endorsement and complete a social studies composite endorsement so that the educator can teach classes like world geography, government, and psychology. For example, at Utah State University (USU) all students planning on going into history education are working towards a social studies composite endorsement (U.S. Department of Education [ED], 2020). In 2019, at USU, there were 15 students pursuing a social studies composite endorsement and 0 students pursuing a history teaching endorsement. In order to complete a social studies endorsement at USU, students must take 24 credit hours in history courses with no courses explicitly about historiography required (Utah State University School of Teacher Education and Leadership, 2020). This trend continues in Utah at other colleges as well. For example, at Brigham Young University (BYU) in 2019 there were 22 students pursuing a social studies composite endorsement (ED, 2020) while there were only 6 students pursuing a history teaching endorsement (ED, 2020). The history teaching endorsement requires 43 hours of credit in history courses and a required capstone class in which the focus is historiography (BYU, 2019). In BYU’s social studies composite endorsement program students only need to complete 25 hours of history credit for licensure (BYU, 2019). While social studies composite students may take a course explicitly focusing on historiography, it is not required of candidates at BYU (BYU, 2019). USU and BYU recommend the highest number of history teacher candidates for licensure HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 15 in the state of Utah (ED, 2020), and most of their graduates are not required to take a course explicitly about historiography (Utah State University School of Teacher Education and Leadership, 2020; BYU, 2019). A Lack of Required Historiography in the State of Utah Once teacher candidates graduate and enter the classroom, another obstacle can make historiographical practices difficult: state course requirements. In the state of Utah, students are required to pass only 1.5 credits of history in order to graduate (The Elementary and Secondary School General Core, 2019). The limits of these requirements deny students the opportunity to work extensively with historiography because students do not have a large background of history in elementary school and junior high (The Elementary and Secondary School General Core, 2019). The lack of required history classes for both teachers and students reduces their exposure to historiography. However, once in the classroom, exposure to historiography is limited by course. According to the Utah core standards for United States history II, the most common historical skills students should use are compare and contrast, cause and effect, and the evaluation of primary sources (USBE, 2016). The only standard in which students will use historical methods to examine a historiographical account of the past is about World War II (USBE, 2016). Students must, “cite and compare historical arguments from multiple perspectives regarding the use of “total war” in World War II, focusing on the changing objectives, weapons, tactics, and rules of war…” (USBE, 2016, p. 10). While this use of historiography is appropriate and challenging for students, the lack of other examples in the core standards highlights the need for more historiography in the classroom. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 16 In Davis School District, adapted standards, known as the Davis Essential Skills and Knowledge (DESK), are used. In history classes, students are expected to utilize six skills: (a) identify and explain historical developments and processes; (b) analyze cause, effects and periodization in history; (c) analyze the context of historical events, documents, or developments; (d) analyze similarities and differences between time periods, locations, events, etc.; (e) analyze source, situation, and arguments in primary and secondary sources; and (f) demonstrate effective communication skills (Davis School District [DSD], 2020). The only DESK standard that explicitly requires students to think historically and attempt historiographical analysis is (d) “Analyze source, situation and arguments in primary and secondary sources” (DSD, 2020). Other standards could provoke historiographical thinking, but the creation of historiographical challenging lessons based on those standards is reliant on the teachers experience in historiography. These standards were revised in 2020 to meet the new Utah state standards that were published in 2016 (USBE 2016). The History Wars and National History Standards Across many states, Utah included, standards are a battleground. History by its very nature is a politicized discipline because it can and does create and enact identity, narrative, and power. During the 1990s, the history wars erupted in the United States (Lima de Avila, 2016; Popkin, 2016). This public debate focused on incorporating newer historiography, such as the social, linguistic, and cultural turns, pitting political conservatives calling for a return to “historical objectivity” against academic historians (Popkin, 2016, p. 159). Led by the director of the National Endowment for the Humanities, Lynne Cheney, an attempt to create a set of national history standards began in 1989 (Symcox, 2009). Crafted by professional historians and classroom teachers, the standards took a social and cultural approach HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 17 to the historiography within the standards (Symcox, 2009). Several years later Cheney decried the standards as including too much “doom and gloom” in American History and not instilling enough patriotic values (Symcox, 2009, p. 37). After major Republican gains in the elections of 1992 and very vocal public backlash, the proposed standards were defeated in the United States Senate 99-1 (Symcox, 2009). The arguments of the history wars have been enacted in state history standards and textbooks well into the 21st century. For example, in Florida, the state legislature passed a bill declaring, “American history shall be viewed as factual, not as constructed, shall be viewed as knowable, teachable, and testable, and shall be defined as the creation of a new nation based largely on the universal principles stated in the Declaration of Independence” (Florida House of Representatives, 2006, p. 44). This statute returns the history classroom to older methods of historiography focused on nation-building and ignores the developments in historiography since 1945. Historiography in Textbooks Historiography, especially new historiography, is absent from many current textbooks (Crawford & Foster, 2006). Textbooks have returned to the nineteenth century historiography and purpose of history as a method to create the nation and national myths (Crawford & Foster, 2006). According the James Loewen (1995), The titles [of the textbooks] themselves tell the story: The Great Republic, The American Pageant, Land of Promise, Triumph of the American Nation. Such titles differ from the titles of all other textbooks students read in high school or college. Chemistry books, for example, are called Chemistry or Principles of Chemistry, not Triumph of the Molecule. (p. 24) HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 18 Additionally, within history textbooks, many social problems such as racism and sexism are distilled into “amorphous problems” in which victimhood is identified, but the perpetrators of the injustices remain anonymous (Crawford & Foster, 2006, p. 168). Moderation is presented as the radical choice. For example, many textbooks extol the work of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and present less information on the protests of other notable civil rights leaders such as Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, and Fred Hampton (Crawford and Foster, 2006). According to the Council on Interracial Books for Children: The United States itself was born in violent revolution, and throughout our history, people have agitated and struggled against injustice. Abolitionism, women’s suffrage, civil rights, union organizing, and anti-war activities are among the struggles which have utilized extra-legal tactics of boycotts, passive resistance, civil disobedience, and breaking of law. Changes in the law to correct injustice have often resulted because of extra-legal types of agitation. (p. 92) Though subtle, the lack of blame and primacy of moderation present in most American history textbooks denies students’ voices that are a critical part of the new historiography. Finally, many history textbooks fail to present historiography by not critically analyzing diverse populations that are mentioned but not examined (Crawford & Foster, 2006). Minority populations appear in textbooks only in relation to white people, and women appear in those same textbooks only in relation to men (Crawford & Foster, 2006). A more complete history is absent from the classroom with few remedies to fix the problem. A Pedagogical Content Knowledge for History One potential remedy to increase the use and understanding of historiography in the classroom is defining a pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for history. PCK is focused HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 19 around combining content knowledge of the discipline with effective pedagogy (Powell, 2018). According to Deng (2007), history as a discipline has an extra step to an effective PCK. The standards, as they go from the academy through the state boards of education and local school districts, gain new interpretations and intentions (Deng, 2007). Because of this distortion of the discipline, teachers must reinterpret the curriculum differently from the methods used in a university classroom (Powell, 2018). In this setting of mirage-like standards, social studies and history teachers need to understand the epistemology of not only history, but also the disciplines of psychology, geography, political science, anthropology, and sociology (Powell, 2018). While university programs can provide the necessary environment for learning these epistemologies, mentors can also teach methods to new teachers (Achinstein & Fogo, 2015; Monte-Sano & Budano, 2013). The ultimate path for a universal PCK for history is based on historical skills and historiography (Powell, 2018). As an added benefit to developing a PCK for history, students develop higher-order thinking skills through a rigorous practice of historiography (Wineburg, 2018; Schneider and Zakai, 2016; Wineburg, 2010; Calder, 2006; Wineburg, 1991) The Damage Currently Caused Despite the many shifts in historical methods, there is a lack of requirements by state educational agencies, leading to many teachers failing to utilize historiography in the classroom. (Day, 2013; Lovorn, 2012; Hofferle, 2007). As a result, students suffer because historiography allows for students develop a deeper content knowledge in history (Salinas et al., 2012). These benefits suggest that historiography has a place in today’s history classroom. However, the damage that older methods of historiography can cause requires a new classroom historiography in order to create equity. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 20 The social, linguistic, and cultural turns updated historiography and democratized the discipline. However, older methods of historiography continue to be taught. Culturally relevant pedagogy can engage students of color students more fully than more traditional methods (Kucan & Cho, 2018; Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Sampson & Garrison-Wade, 2011). By incorporating a variety of historical figures and events from a variety of backgrounds, students of color are more engaged with the curriculum. Additionally, the inclusion of representative history in curriculum can increase student achievement (Halvorson et. Al., 2016). HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 21 Purpose Historiography is the process of creating historical narratives based around primary and secondary sources. There have been many developments in the field of historiography especially in the last 70 years. These changes have not been adequately addressed in 21st century history standards. State standards could do more to require students to utilize historiographical thinking. Teachers could also be better prepared. Teacher education programs in the state of Utah do not require future educators to take many history courses, especially courses in which the focus is historiography. The textbooks available to teach history at the secondary level do not adequately approach historiography let alone recent developments in the field. Rather, the history that is presented is constructed using historiographical methods from the early 20th century, and textbooks do not ask students to consider textbooks as anything but authoritative. Students of color, female students, and students in poverty also may suffer from a lack of representation in history curriculum. These problems are compounded by teachers’ lack of preparation, but one potential idea to improve historiographical thinking is the development of a pedagogical content knowledge for history. The purpose of this project is to develop guidelines for creating historiographical lessons. The newly developed guidelines will be used in order to create a historiography curriculum for 11th grade United States history in Davis School District in Davis county, Utah for personal classroom use. The need for guidelines in Davis School District is great for several reasons. First, Utah is experiencing fast growth in its population of its students of color (U.S Census Bureau, 2010). As a state, the percentage of people of color increased by 16.7% from 2000-2010 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). Another reason to create a guideline for classroom historiographical practices is because new curriculum standards were developed in 2019. The new standards allow HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 22 for teachers to reset their historiographical practice in the classroom as new lessons have to be developed and older lessons have to be adapted. The objectives of the guidelines are to • incorporate recent changes in historiography into the curriculum, • require students to assess the historiography of commonly used secondary sources, and • represent all students in the curriculum. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 23 Method The methods used to create a new set of guidelines for classroom historiography use will undoubtedly have to rely on multiple approaches from different aspects of historiographical theory and different critical approaches in order to meet the purpose of the guidelines. The starting point will be the DESK standards as the guidelines must allow derivative lessons to meet at least one skill and one content standard in each lesson created. However, the historiographical approaches used will remain modern, drawing from the social, linguistic, and cultural turns. In order to use these methods of historiography in a secondary classroom, new types of sources will have to be used with more traditional sources. For example, instead of just including a speech by Theodore Roosevelt in the Food and Drug Administration, sources would need to be included about the workers in the food factories, poor families eating the tainted food, public health data about workplace accidents and deaths from food poisoning, and advertising campaigns designed by the companies portraying their food as “safe.” By using sources previously absent from the secondary classroom, a more inclusive and holistic approach to history may be created. Finally, in order to create a history class for all, critical theories of race, gender, and class will be used to create historiographical guidelines. The critical theories used to create the guide will go beyond the general historiography from the literature review and feature more niche scholars focusing on race, gender, and class. Special attention will be paid to scholars focusing on liberation historiography and feminist historiography. This process will not only have to rely on the selection of varied sources, but also on a normalization of women’s and people of color’s voices. Too many times Black voices are only heard in a secondary history class when the lesson is explicitly about race. Women only make an appearance when gaining the right to vote or beginning 2nd wave feminism. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 24 Based on a careful curation of sources and a wide base of theory, these guidelines will be developed for the secondary classroom. From those guidelines, eight lessons will be created for an 11th grade U.S. history II class based on the DESK standards. At the end of the process, informal feedback will be sought from three educators licensed to teach the class and incorporated if found helpful. Reviewers will be asked to read through the guidelines and the lessons and provide written feedback. The timeline for the project is to be completed by August 1, 2020 including the review by other educators. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 25 A CLASSROOM GUIDE FOR HISTORIOGRAPHY IN LESSON PLANNING According to American writer and Nobel Prize laureate, William Faulkner (1975), “The past is never dead. It’s not even past” (p. 73). In other words, historiographical analyses completed today will reflect the present zeitgeist, especially within classroom instruction. As skills-based history instruction becomes more common, there is an opening for increased use of historiographical methods in secondary history classrooms. Historiography is the basis of the discipline of history. However, much classroom instruction in history currently lacks the depth necessary in order for students to practice historiography, especially post-World War II changes in the field. A failure to teach historiography might be similar to a chemistry teacher failing to teach lab procedures. The problem is that history without the contextual historiography is not history at all. Historiography, put simply, is the way that history is put together. Sources used to create history are chosen, interpreted, and evaluated according to different criteria according to the historian and their historiographical methods. Some choices that historiographers have to make include the types of sources that are used for historical interpretation. Once the sources have been chosen, the historian must also determine which school of historiography either best connects the sources into a coherent understanding or aligns with the historian’s personal interpretation of history. Typically, historiography is taught primarily in graduate schools of history and not in the secondary classroom. In order to create a framework for the classroom teacher, this guide will attempt to familiarize teachers with some of the critical theory of recent forms of historiography as well as different schools of historiographical interpretation that they can use while planning lessons for students. The guide should be used as either an introduction or a refresher for the HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 26 different schools of historiography. Teachers are time-constrained and this guide is designed to summarize relevant historiographies into a matter of pages. Teachers should feel free to further research the different schools of historiography with outside reading. The schools of historiography presented in this guide begin historically with the professionalization of the discipline of history in the 19th century and continue until the development of postmodernism in the second half of the 20th century. Historiography in the secondary classroom is not only comprised of the selection of sources for use in the classroom, but also the interpretation of any direct instruction as well. A Look at Historiography in the Classroom Historiography, to the extent that it has been present in secondary classrooms, has failed to modernize as historians have developed newer methods of historical interpretation. This has commonly led to U.S. history classes focused on nation-building rather than critical thinking, potentially creating nationalists instead of reasoned and informed citizens. As courses are created, designed, and funded by the state, there is a mission of deference to state authority built into the curriculum. This is especially evident when reviewing state-approved textbooks and the inclusions and omissions from the historical record. There is a distinct absence of in-depth historiographical investigation, for instance, of persons of color, women, and populations of poverty. A history teacher, whether intentionally or not, reproduces systems of power. In a secondary classroom, the vastness of the discipline of history eliminates the possibility of covering everything. For example, a professor in history at an Ivy League university might specialize in the American family since 1945. Secondary history teachers, however, must be familiar with all aspects of American history since 1880, as well as any other courses that they teach. The histories presented in the classroom cannot be objective because of HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 27 the lack of historical content knowledge most teachers have. Similarly, the personal experiences of the teacher will influence the selection of sources and the schools of interpretation used within the curriculum. As a result, student-centered dialogue and analysis democratizes the classroom and requires instruction in a variety of schools of historical thought. There are two other reasons for educators to include more historiography in the classroom. First, more diverse student populations do better academically with a more diverse curriculum (Kucan & Cho, 2018; Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Sampson & Garrison-Wade, 2011). Representation in the history classroom allows for students to see themselves in the curriculum and serves as a reminder of agency. Students can use historical figures as role models and examples of breaking stereotypes and systems of power. Second, new standards are mandating a skills-based approach. Historiography is a well-suited vehicle with which to develop historical thinking skills. Investigating sources, evaluating arguments, and synthesizing new views is a historiographical process that can help students develop critical historical thinking, allowing learners to evolve as responsible citizens capable of making difficult decisions and engaging effectively in the civic process. State curriculums focusing on nation building overlook these historical skills forgoing much critical thinking. Recent developments in historiography highlight the need for a wider variety of voices in the secondary classroom. There was a linguistic turn in historiography that began after World War II (Popkin, 2016). One outcome of the linguistic turn is the understanding that history cannot be objective. All historians have different educations, backgrounds, and interpretations. Similarly, the past was filled with people who were unique in many ways and experienced often vastly different lives. Teachers and their students could benefit from internalizing the linguistic turn and moving away from grand narratives and over-generalizations of the past. Furthermore, HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 28 the social turn of the 1960s began to show history of the common person. A focus on generals, politicians, and economists gave way to a focus on black, brown, and indigenous persons, labor movements, women, and LGTBQ+ persons. History as a discipline began to be more inclusive of all. Finally, the cultural turn of the 1980s began to shift the discussion again. Historiography began to focus on cultural symbols and power. Historians started studying larger societal concepts and how those concepts created, maintained, and restricted power for and against varying groups of people. Schools of Historiography Because many historians, subsequent to the linguistic, social, and cultural turns, are now telling stories of the past in pieces from relative points of view, teachers must also be able to educate students in the nuances between different interpretations of historiography. In The Houses of History (2016), Anna Green and Kathleen Troup describe different schools of historiography. This guide will summarize and synthesize those schools in order for the classroom teacher to better utilize historiography in the classroom. Empirical Historiography One of the most common forms of historiography or historical interpretation found in the secondary classroom is empirical history. Empiricism is to use observation to determine the nature of an event, object, or person. The way that historians research history is often empirical in nature, but it is not the same process as that employed by a historian of the empirical school of interpretation. Empiricists do not strive to interpret the past, but as Von Ranke said, they attempt to describe “how it really was” (Green & Troup, 2016, p. 14). To an empiricist, the past is verifiable and objective even when the sources of the past are not. Interpreting the past is a HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 29 process of observing historical primary sources, using inductive reasoning to extrapolate information, and creating wider understanding and theories of the past (Green & Troup, 2016). One issue that empiricism has is that in their attempts to remain neutral and objective, historians still use a narrative form of interpretation that includes and excludes information at the discretion of the author. State history standards are seemingly written by many who claim the empiricist banner. For example, in Jefferson county, Colorado, a school board member condemned the Advanced Placement United States history curriculum. She proposed a resolution that, “stated that AP history classes should promote ‘patriotism and ... the benefits of the free- enterprise system’ and should not ‘encourage or condone civil disorder’” (Brudin, 2014). Common complaints against the state standards often mention a failure to stick to the facts—the facts, of course, being the topics that the person making the complaint would want investigated. History teachers communicate with parents, students, and administrators on a daily basis of whom many do not have a formal training in history much less historiography. Because of a lack of experience, many members of the general public view empirical history as history. Teachers must be willing and able to introduce additional schools of historiography to students as well as defend instructional choices in historiography when parents push back with a restrictive definition of history. Great Man Historiography One of the more notorious schools of historiography is the Great Man Theory of History. Based off of the writings of historian Thomas Carlyle, Great Man Historiography is the interpretation that history is created by great men and sometimes women who have certain personal characteristics and the sheer will to determine the course of history. While no modern historian would claim Great Man Historiography as the primary method by which history should HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 30 be interpreted, many textbooks and state history standards still promote examples of individuals who shaped history as doing so independent of outside factors. Great Man History has had its opponents since it was first theorized. Sociologist Herbert Spencer, a contemporary to Thomas Carlyle, stated that the great man in history “is powerless in the absence of the material and mental accumulations which his society inherits from the past, and that he is powerless in the absence of the co-existing population, character, intelligence, and social arrangements” (1873). Great Man History is reductionist, stripped of nuance, and simplistic in analysis. Advanced critical thinking is more difficult to offer in a classroom focused on Great Man History. Educators must be wary and should reflect deeply on how this interpretation manifests in the curriculum without critique. Whiggish Historiography Whiggish historiography has its roots in the British political tradition. The basic interpretation of Whiggish history is that society is on a set of tracks leading towards expanding civil rights and liberties to an ever-broadening portion of society. The birth of Whig history in the U.K. quickly spread to newly-founded United States. The present, according to a Whiggish historiographer is the most-enlightened of all ages. The present is superior and only improving. Progress is an unstoppable force being promoted by more liberal politicians and citizens, and more regressive conservative movements are attempting to stop progress. Whiggish history also allows for the historian to judge the past based off of the morals of today. The common aphorism, “history is written by the victors,” applies directly to Whiggish history. Persons who are complex historical figures are deified if they are “good” person according to the historian. and demonized if they do not meet the historian’s guidelines. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 31 In the United States, Whiggish history is the genesis of American exceptionalism. In this interpretation, the United States is Ronald Reagan’s “city on a hill,” an example of liberal democracy shining for the world to see. Whig history has been widely discredited. Most historians would argue that historiography’s purpose is not to build nationalists. However, Whig history it is still seen in many American history textbooks. For example, many books while teaching the history of race in the United States describe it as a series of decisions and occurrences that have inevitably led to a more inclusive society for all Americans and that the present is a progressive and inexorable culmination of the past. American Consensus School of Historiography Similar to the Whiggish school of historiography is the American Consensus School of historiography. During the middle of the 20th century, the United States become a superpower and became engaged with the Soviet Union in an ideological Cold War between democratic capitalism and authoritarian communism. The effects of the Cold War could also be seen in the development of historiography. Historians of the mid-20th century were more united across the political spectrum. American historians such as liberals Richard Hofstadter and Louis Hartz and conservative Daniel Boorstin were associated with the American Consensus School in the late 1940s. The consensus school fostered variations on the foundations of American society. Via the consensus school, historians determined that differences between opposing groups in the United States are much smaller than a broad base of shared values such as personal freedom, the right to property, and laissez faire capitalism. One main idea is that differences between Republicans and Democrats are minor, inconsequential differences because all Americans believe and trust in the democratic process. The effects of these beliefs can be viewed positively or negatively according HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 32 to each historian, but the values are widespread and not disputed. By organizing Americans by shared values, the consensus school not only alienated those without those values, but also minimized the differences in American society. The American consensus school of historiography began to lose credence in the 1960s as social upheaval, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War polarized American society and other methods of historical interpretation emerged. Some historians such as Bruce Schulman claim there is a movement of neo-consensus historians present today. For example, neo-consensus historians have identified the shared values of the United States as mass incarceration, globalization of politics, neoliberalism, and the individualization of identity (Schulman 2019). While consensus history can be valuable when comparing the United States to other contexts, it can silence many voices in the field of American history. Marxist Historiography Marxist historiography and Marxism are related in their origin, but are not synonyms for each other. Karl Marx, the ideological founder of modern communism, inspired a school of historiography focused on historical materialism. The basis of historical materialism is that all conflict in human history begins over material needs. For example, World War II began in Asia so that the Japanese could utilize the mineral resources of Manchuria. Marxist historiography relies on class consciousness as the primary driver of social change. Society is structured according to a person’s relationship with capital. Due to the nature of Marxist historiography, it is fairly easy to explain and find examples. However, there are issues that may arise teaching Marxist historiography in a classroom setting. Marx has become a politicized “boogeyman” in much of the United States. Students may need more scaffolding in order to understand that using a Marxist interpretation of history does not HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 33 necessarily make a person a communist. Under Marx’s view of history, society progresses through ancient society, feudalism, and then capitalism. Eventually, these systems fail and are replaced by their successor. After capitalism, Marx predicted that the proletariat would seize the means of production and institute a classless society of communism, culminating in the dissolution of the state. These events have failed to fully materialize in the 150 years since Marx, however, many states such as Sweden, the Soviet Union, and Cuba have developed and enacted and retained some Marxist theory in their governance. The historiographical idea that power comes from capital and that major decisions are made with capital in mind can be an excellent tool of historical interpretation. As a result, many historians have used Marxist interpretations throughout the 20th century in the United States and around the world. Pulling from a broad base of Marxist histories, students can investigate almost any historical period or event through a Marxist lens in the high school classroom. Students can quickly grasp the connections between power and capital because so many students are directly interested in wealth. Annales School Historiography The Annales School began in France with a focus on long-term social history. “Long- term,” according to the Annalistes, is over a century. Typical historical events found in textbooks such as a war or economic depression often last less than a decade. Annales School historians argue that social change happened over centuries in particular contexts determined by the time. In order to understand reaction to the American civil rights movement, historians must look at the societal structure that has been under construction since the earliest days of the American colonies. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 34 A second-wave of the Annales School divided time into three different categories, geographic time that takes millennia to change, social time that takes centuries, and individual time that happens within the lifetime of a person (Iggers, 1997). For example, in Utah Japanese Internment at Topaz is shaped by many factors. First, the camp was situated in the middle of the Great Basin which was formed over millions of years. Second, the groups of people involved have histories for hundreds of years from the interned Japanese-American citizens, to the guards, to the Utah natives around the camps. Finally, the events of the internment are situated in the late 1930s and early 1940s as World War II began. Because of these three timelines that each create different and possibly conflicting historical contexts, the Annales school does not support a strong linear narrative history. Creating space for Annales school interpretation in the classroom requires establishing the context of the event historical within the three timeframes of history and interpreting how society’s values and ideas impact on the event. This means that classroom instruction should contain geographic components to learn about the longest timeline. Social history and sociology should also be taught in order to look at history in the distant past. Finally, the details of immediate events leading to the subject of study should be introduced last. Social Historiography As persons of color demanded equal rights in American society in the 1950s and 1960s. there were also new developments in historiography. The American consensus school faded as the history of communities of color, labor movements, and poverty grew in importance. Social history, which had long been neglected in favor of political, military, and economic histories, grew partially out of Marxist historiography. The Marxist historians of in the United States had to consider race and ethnicity much more critically than historians in Europe. The development HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 35 of the fields of Black, Brown, and Indigenous history were accompanied by similar developments in historiography. American historians, as a reaction to the Consensus School and Great Man Theory, began to write history “from below.” This new style of interpretation intentionally disregarded traditional accounts. Histories were assembled using sources not based in writing. Many times in the past the vast majority of people were not literate. Thus, written accounts are discriminatory much of the time. There are three practices teachers may use to supplement social historiography in the classroom. The first historiographical practice of social history is quantitative analysis. Document creators in the past typically belonged to the literate elite. The absence of documents from the perspective of the illiterate has harmed a comprehensive view of the past. Quantitative history relies on documents such as censuses, tax records, church records, and court documents. To incorporate quantitative history the classroom teachers should expand sources beyond texts, political cartoons, and photographs. Quantitative data can be used to tell the story of those seldom heard in other, more common, narratives. For example, lessons on daily life in the great depression may be more representative of all Americans if the sources used include aggregated data of median wages and the unemployment rate. A second historiographical practice of social history is ethnography. In American history, many native peoples, black slaves, and poor workers were not fully literate. That does not mean that the respective cultures are unknowable. Oral tradition and folk practices can be studied by students in order to add to historical context from seldom heard voices. For example, a lesson on the Civil Rights Movement should build interpretation and analysis using the National Archives HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 36 Civil Rights oral histories. These interviews feature leading members of the civil rights movement reflecting on the movement. A third historiographical practice especially as it relates to the histories of black, brown, and indigenous persons is inclusion in all topics. Many times in American history, black history is only taught in the context of specific black-centered events such as Jim Crow and the Civil Rights Movement. Black experiences with the New Deal, World War II, or the Vietnam war are “whitewashed.” Most sources are commonly used in most units were created by White Americans. The erasure of voices of color reduces persons of color from humans to historic role players without agency. Feminist Historiography Feminism is an ideological movement committed to demolishing patriarchy and embracing a system of full equality between sexes regardless of race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or economic class. A patriarchal society, by contrast, is male-dominated and males make decisions about the extent to which females can participate in society. Judith Bennett (2006), in her description of patriarchal equilibrium explains, how to interpret history with a feminist approach. Women’s lives are transformed by societal changes across long periods of time (Bennett, 2006). For example, women lived vastly different lives in the mostly agrarian American colonies compared to urban women in 1920s New York City. However, the status of women will not change due to these transformations. Patriarchy, when confronted by transformations in lifestyles, reasserts itself and changes to the new situations (Bennett, 2006). Educators must focus on the issues of feminism in order for students to interpret the past using feminist historiography. The underlying terms such as feminism and patriarchy have to be explored in depth. Discussion of terms in a philosophical stance not only helps to introduce HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 37 students to feminist historiography, but also prompts students to think about the structures of society throughout history as a historian of the Annales School would do. Postmodern Historiography Since the end of the second world war, the academy has seen new movements in philosophy and historiography. Several of these new ideas came together to form the basis of a postmodern historiography. The basic foundation of postmodern historiography is that each person understands language on individual terms. For instance, Person A and Person B both have a definition for the word “happy.” Those definitions have some similarities, but they are also not a perfect match. This problem becomes even more noticeable when the two persons are separated by hundreds of years of history. Modern historians have an inadequate portrait of the past for two reasons. First, the definitions of words that sources use are not perfect matches across time and space. Secondly, only some perspectives were ever recorded in history and other perspectives were lost as sources have been destroyed over time. All of the work of the historian, therefore, is to interpret the past. It is impossible for historians to create an objective view of history. Some historians such as Hayden White have argued that historical writing is closer to literature than to science (Popkin, 2016). The nature of history can never approach objectivity and universal truths cannot exist. One critique of postmodern historiography is that, taken to extremes, it can lead to all of history being meaningless. If all of history is subjective then what is the point in studying accounts that are so reflective of their authors. However, postmodern historiography acknowledges that history is power. The lack of objectivity means that all historical accounts must be accounted to the authors’ intents and purposes. Meaning is created. The creation of histories empowers historians. As a form of interpretation, postmodern historiography HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 38 democratizes the field, allowing for any person from any background to source the material and write the history. Within the classroom context, educators must have students evaluate the bias not only of sources, but also the intentions of those who claim objectivity is their desire for curriculum in history classrooms. Incorporating Historiography in the Classroom As the State of Utah has pushed for a skills-based history classroom, educators have a practical and timely reason to incorporate more historiographical practice in the classroom. Historiography is the selection of sources and the methods used to interpret those sources. Students should be familiar with common schools of historiography and be able to analyze, evaluate, and reproduce those historiographical arguments on many topics in history. In order to accomplish these tasks and increase critical thinking, teachers should explicitly have lessons on historical theory. The failure to include representative, modern historiography weakens not only student’s critical thinking, but also weakens student’s performance (Halvorson et. Al., 2016). Historiographical practice has also been shown to increase student engagement (Kucan & Cho, 2018; Aronson & Laughter, 2016; Sampson & Garrison-Wade, 2011). The focus on names, dates, and vocabulary words, must yield to the philosophy and theory of historiography. The attached lesson plans, designed for an 11th grade United States history class in Utah, attempt to illustrate, for the classroom teacher, practical examples of historiographical theory. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 39 LESSON PLANS Each of the following lesson plans are designed for 11th grade United States History in Davis School District in Utah. The lessons are based around the Davis Essential Skills and Knowledge (DESK) standards for United States History 2. As it is common in the district, the lessons are designed to be taught in one or more 90-minute blocks. The class typically meets every other day. Supplementary lessons should be designed before and after the example lessons. These lessons are designed to focus on historiography and its schools of interpretation. However, the lessons need to be placed into historical context and the teacher should design those lessons with historiography in mind, even if students do not directly address historiography. The lesson plans include the specific objective, relevant standards in the DESK standards, a guiding question to open and close the lesson, supporting questions, introductory activity, a document-based task, and a series of historiographical questions. Depending on the lessons, these questions may be part of a small group or class wide discussion, written as a short answer or essay, or part of a unit project. Instructional strategies are explained or taken directly from the website Facing History and Ourselves (https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/teaching- strategies). Teaching using these specific lesson plans requires that teachers have cultivated a conversation-friendly classroom that all students feel comfortable participating in discussions. Lesson Plan 1: Introduction to Historiography Objective: Students will discuss and create a working definition of historiography based off of the current Confederate monument removal controversy, situating the beginning of the course in the context of the end of Reconstruction. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 40 DESK Standards: Content Standards (1.1, 1.2, 1.3; Industry and social reform after 1880) Skills Standards (1.2: Define and describe historical concepts and processes.) (3.3: Explain how a specific historical event, document, or development is situated within a broader historical context.) (3.4: Identify patterns among or connections between historical developments and processes.) Guiding Question: What is history and how do we know it? Supporting Questions: Is history objective, why or why not? Who decides what is history? How does bias come into history? How do statues represent history? Why do people erect statues or other monuments? Who should be represented by statues and why? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: Students should be familiar with Reconstruction, the Compromise of 1877, and the beginnings of Jim Crow. Step-by-step guide: 1. While entering the classroom students will answer the prompt projected on the screen or written on the board, “What is history? How is it written? What makes a person a historian? Write as much detail as possible.” Students should take about 5 minutes to answer the prompt on a sheet of paper. Immediately following the bell activity, students should be placed into two circles for concentric circles discussion. This should last approximately 10 minutes. A classroom discussion should focus on student’s answers and eventually the teacher should begin to steer the conversation toward the new question, “is history objective?” This should last around 10 minutes. 2. Students will be placed into groups and will read one of two articles. The first is a research study conducted by the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC). It can be found at this web address (https://www.splcenter.org/20190201/whose-heritage-public-symbols- HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 41 confederacy). The second article is a press release by the Sons of Confederate Veterans. It can be found at this web address (https://www.wbtv.com/2020/06/13/nc-sons- confederate-veterans-respond-flags-statues-being-removed/). Students will jigsaw the readings. Students will take notes on the following questions a. Who is the author of the article? What information can we find about the person? b. What is the website hosting the article? What can we learn about the group and their website? c. Is the source biased? Provide evidence if you believe they are biased. d. What is the evidence provided to support the article’s claim? e. Do you agree or disagree with the article? Support your opinion with evidence from the article. The readings may be split into as many pieces as there are groups of students. The teacher will be walking around the classroom providing expertise in reading and discussion. Once students are finished with the group reading, they will answer the following questions in groups. a. How do statues represent history? b. Does the context of a statue change its meaning and history? Why or why not? c. Are statues valuable forms of history? d. To what extent can history be objective? Once finished, students will make informal group presentations about the reading and their discussions. This should take around the rest of the class period and part of the next class period as well. In the presentations, students should summarize the information from their section of the readings, as well as each group member should give a brief HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 42 personal answer to the question, “Can history be objective?” This individual answer should be between 30 seconds to one minute long per person. 3. As an exit ticket, students will revisit the guiding question, “What is history and how do we know it?” The teacher should have the students discuss the question with a partner for 2 minutes, rotate partners, discuss for another 2 minutes, rotate partners, and discuss for a final 2 minutes. Afterwards, students should record their answers on a sheet of paper. This activity should take around 10 minutes. 4. One possible extension of this lesson, would have students research local statues and places of memory. Students would then compare the creation and status of the local statue to Confederate statues in other places. Lesson Plan 2: Great Man Historiography, and the Annales School Objective: Students will evaluate the role that individuals play in history. This lesson will introduce great man historiography and compare it to the longer timeframe of the Annales school of historiography. DESK standards: Content Standards (1.1, 1.2, 1.3; Industry and social reform after 1880) Skills Standards (5.3: Explain/analyze the point of view, purpose, and/or audience of a source.) (5.4: Evaluate the reliability and/or usefulness of a source.) Guiding Question: What role does an individual play in history? Supporting Questions: Does a person create history? Does history create a person? Can individuals control their own destiny? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: Students should be familiar with the “Robber Barons” of the Gilded Age and the processes of American industrialization. Step-by-step guide: HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 43 1. While entering the classroom students will answer the prompt projected on the screen or written on the board, “Have you been responsible for change in your life our have your circumstances determined what has happened to you. Explain.” After students have had sufficient time to answer the prompt, have them discuss with partners before taking a class poll and having a larger discussion. Eventually, the discussion should focus on the influence of “great men” of history. The writing and discussion should be around 25 minutes of the class period. 2. Students will read a newspaper article from the Saint Paul Globe held by the Library of Congress (https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn90059523/1896-08-02/ed-1/seq- 13/#words=John+Rockefeller+Standard+Oil). Students should take notes summarizing the article. Students should also take notes on the tone of the article, especially as it relates to the portrait of John D. Rockefeller. This task should take around 30 minutes. 3. Before a writing activity, students will have an opportunity to brainstorm. Students will be asked the following questions. “How much did the Gilded Age influence John D. Rockefeller? Was he his own man or was he a man of his time?” After students have recorded their responses, reasons can be listed as a class on the front board. 4. Based off of reading the article, brainstorm activity, and previous instruction, students will write 2 paragraphs with evidence from the article and previous lessons. The first paragraph will support the claim that John D. Rockefeller helped to create America’s economy of the Gilded Age, and the second paragraph will support the claim that the Gilded Age economy created John D. Rockefeller. This task will take the remainder of the class period. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 44 5. The next class period, students will choose an American entrepreneur from between 1870 and 1910. Here are some suggestions for entrepreneurs to include for students to choose; John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Jay Cooke, James Buchanan Duke, Jay Gould, Gustavus Swift, John Pierpont Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Samuel Insull, Madam C.J. Walker, John Harvey Kellogg. Students will then research their person, focusing on the businesses built, requirements for the businesses to succeed, and whether the person could be classified as a “robber baron” or a “captain of industry.” 6. Once students have selected an entrepreneur and completed the research, they will fold a sheet of paper. While the paper is landscape, fold the left and right sides of the paper until they meet. There should be two fold-lines on the paper and three panels. 7. The front side of the paper where the left and right sides meet will be the front cover. On the front cover students should draw a picture of their entrepreneur. The top of one side should say “Robber Baron” and the top of the other side should say, “Captain of Industry” The inside of each panel should provide evidence that the entrepreneur belongs in the respective categories. 8. The rest of the pamphlet. The middle panel on the front and back side should be a short essay that the student writes. The essay should explain the student’s belief about whether the entrepreneur is a “great man” of history or whether the entrepreneur is a product of the Gilded Age. Evidence should be present from previous lessons and personal research. The essay should also identify, describe, and explain the most important factors of the entrepreneur’s success. If the success is a result of personal characteristics, then the essay is making a great man theory interpretation. If the success is reliant on societal and technological changes, then the essay is an Annales School interpretation. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 45 Lesson Plan 3: The Great Depression and Marxist Historiography Objective: Students will analyze the Democratic coalition of the New Deal and its makeup along class lines. DESK Standards: Content Standards (2.4 The Great Depression and 2.5 The New Deal) Skills Standards (2.4 Identify, describe, and explain how specific examples of evidence support a historical claim) (3.3 Explain how a specific historical event, document, or development is situated within a broader historical context) Guiding Question: Does the success of Franklin Roosevelt, the Democratic Party of the 1930s, and the New Deal rely on social class solidarity? Supporting Questions: Who were the most impacted by the Great Depression? Why did political challenges to the New Deal fail? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: Students should know the basic facts of the Great Depression and the New Deal. They should also be familiar with Marxism which should be taught during a lesson on the First Red Scare. Step-by-step guide: 1. While entering the classroom students will answer the prompt projected on the screen or written on the board, “What motivates people and why do you think that it motivates people?” Discussion should occur with partners at first before moving to the whole class. Eventually, the discussion should be placed on historical materialism. This should take around 15 minutes. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 46 2. The teacher should lead a period of direct instruction focused on the definition of historical materialism and its relation to Marxist historiography. This should last approximately 10 minutes. 3. Students will then be placed into groups for a group reading of part of this article by professor William E. Leuchtenburg (https://millercenter.org/president/fdroosevelt/the- american-franchise). After the articles have been read, each group will make a poster for a gallery walk. The poster should summarize the information into the reasons each group was a part of the New Deal coalition and the impacts of the New Deal on those groups. This should take approximately 40 minutes. 4. The gallery walk will begin and students will take notes on the various posters. Students will need to keep the notes to aid in the final parts of the lesson to compare the New Deal Coalition to its rival political organizations. 5. The rest of the class period for day 1 of this lesson will be used for the same groups to research opponents to the New Deal Coalition. Some opponents to research include, a. Charles Townsend and the Old Age Revolving Pension b. Charles Coughlin and the National Union for Social Justice c. Huey Long and the Share our Wealth Movement d. American Liberty League e. German American Bund f. Upton Sinclair and the EPIC movement 6. The second day of the lesson will begin with each group continuing research and building presentations for their opposition movement. This should continue for around 40 minutes. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 47 7. Each group will present the information they researched. Each presentation should be around 5 minutes each. Students may create visual aids of any kind as long as the aids are helpful to the presentation and are finished in the allotted time. The information should include the beginnings of the opposition movement, its reasons for existing, its ideas, and the reason the group failed to overcome the New Deal Coalition. This should take around 40 minutes. Questions for the presentations to answer include a. Did the political movement have economic policies of any kind? Explain. b. Did FDR’s administration incorporate any policies of this organization? c. Use historical materialism to explain the role of the opposition movement in the 1930s. 8. After all of the presentations, students should answer the following questions as an exit ticket, “according to what you have learned, what was the reason that the New Deal coalition able to win elections consistently during the Great Depression and for the next thirty years? Which opposition movements were most successful? How would these movements be interpreted by a Marxist historian? Lesson Plan 4 World War II and the American Consensus School Objective: Students will look examine and evaluate claims that World War II was the “good war,” balancing those claims with sources of dissent in the United States before and during the war. DESK Standards: Content Standards (3.1 United States’ involvement in World War II and its effect) Skills Standards (3.4 Identify patterns among or connections between historical developments and processes) (4.4 Use historical reasoning to explain relationships among pieces of historical evidence) (5.4 Evaluate the reliability and/or usefulness of a source) HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 48 Guiding Question: To what extent was the United States united during World War II? Supporting Questions: What are American values? Does selective application of values invalidate those values entirely? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: Students should be familiar with American involvement in World War II. This lesson should take place near the end of the unit. Step-by-step guide: 1. While entering the classroom students will answer the prompt projected on the screen or written on the board, “Are Americans united in their values today? Why or why not?” After given time to write their answers, students should vote with their feet. One side of the room will be students who agree and the other side of the room should be students who disagree. Each side should take turns presenting arguments as to why the person speaking believes that their side is correct. Over the course of the discussion students have the ability to revote and move to the side they currently agree with. This should take around 20 minutes. 2. Students will watch the following film clip from Frank Capra’s Why We Fight (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lv4JvCJV5QA). After the clip, students will answer on a sheet of paper and discuss in small groups the following questions, “What values does the video clip suggest the United States was fighting for during World War II? Were the values mentioned in the video universal in the United States in World War II?” If students say that the values were not spread nationally, probe until a specific answer is given. Eventually, the discussion should be led to focus on race relations in World War HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 49 II, especially if students have previously learned about the 1941 march on Washington, Zoot suit riots, and Detroit race riot of 1943. This should take around 20 minutes. 3. Students will then read this article (https://www.nationalww2museum.org/ war/articles/double-v-victory) focusing on the Double V for Victory movement. The information from previous lessons and the article should be contrasted with the information and tone of the war found in the history textbook used. Most textbooks use a historiography based in the American Consensus School. Students will answer the following questions comparing the readings. This should take around 40 minutes. a. What do both texts mention? Why do you think that is? b. What is only included in the textbook? What do those events have in common? c. What is only included in the article and outside sources learned about previously? What do those events have in common? d. What does the inclusion or exclusion of material mean as reader? Does it change your interpretation of the text? e. What motives would a historian have to claim that Americans share values? 4. Students will finish class by sharing their revised answers to the question. “Are Americans united in their values today? Why or why not?” They will be voting with their feet again Also, students will answer on an exit ticket, “what does the assumption of consensus say about who is wielding power and their motives?” This will take the rest of the class period. Lesson Plan 5: The Fifties and Feminist Historiography Objective: Students will examine the patriarchy of the 1950s in the light of expanding opportunities for women in the 1940s. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 50 DESK standards: Content Standards (3.3 Culture and society in the 1950s and 1960s) Skills Standards (2.4 Identify, describe, and explain how specific examples of evidence support a historical claim) (3.4 Identify patterns among or connections between historical developments and processes) (4.4 Use historical reasoning to explain relationships among pieces of historical evidence) Guiding Question: To what extent does Patriarchy reassert itself after it has been partially dismantled? Supporting Questions: How had patriarchy been dismantled in the 1940s. How did patriarchy assert itself in the 1950s? How does patriarchy assert itself today? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: Students need to know a definition of patriarchy as well as the basic facts surrounding women during World War II. This would include women’s service in the armed forces and on the home front. Students would also need to be familiar with fifties cultural history of mass consumption, the housewife, and cultural depictions of women. Step-by-step guide 1. As students enter class, they will receive a set of guided notes, and they will look at statistics from this study of labor participation written by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2002/05/art2full.pdf). After students have reviewed the data, they will make three observations about the workforce in the 1950s and 1960s and compare it to what they already know about women working during World War II. A focus question to begin the classroom discussion is. “According to the data provided, what happened to women in the 1950s? Based off of your observations, hypothesize why the role of women changed so drastically between World War II and the 1950s” Students HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 51 should participate in a “give one get one” activity before a class discussion. This strategy involves students recording their answer on a sheet of paper. Then, students will walk around the room and pair up with other students. Each student should have around 30 seconds to explain and support their answer. Both partners will then write down the other’s answer and find a new partner. This step should last around 30 minutes total. 2. The next part of the lesson is an analysis of the short film, “A Date with Your Family” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BQIGiE5vSSM). Students will identify and explain examples of patriarchy being promoted by the film and how those ideals were being promoted in wider American culture. Students will write their answers on guided notes focusing on gender roles in the American family. This should take around 25 minutes. 3. Students will then read in small groups excerpts from, The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan (https://www.npsd.k12.nj.us/cms/lib04/NJ01001216/Centricity/Domain/164/ FeminineMystique.pdf). After popcorn reading the excerpt in small groups, students will answer the following questions. a. What challenges of patriarchy did women face domestically in the 1950s? b. Do women face the same challenges today? c. If women do not face all of the same challenges as today, what are challenges that they do face? d. Does patriarchy reassert itself after it has been successfully challenged? How? e. How should historians write about patriarchy? f. How does Friedan’s perspective influence her interpretation of patriarchy in 1950s America? This task should last around 35 minutes. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 52 4. The next class period should begin with a fishbowl activity focusing on the 5 questions from the article reading. Students should be rotated through the inner ring of the fishbowl every question. The length of time involved is dependent upon student engagement and conversation. Lesson Plan 6: The Black Power Movement and Social Historiography Objective: Students will evaluate the effectiveness of oral history as a source and the meanings of the discourse around the Black Power movement via the documentary Black Power Mixtape 1967-1975. DESK Standards: Content Standards (3.4 The Civil Rights Movement) Skills Standards (2.4 Identify, describe, and explain how specific examples of evidence support a historical claim) (3.4 Identify patterns among or connections between historical developments and processes) (5.4 Evaluate the reliability and/or usefulness of a source.) Essential Question: Is it necessary or helpful to use an oral history of the Black Power movement to study the later Civil Rights Movement? Supporting Questions: What are the positives and negatives of having “outsiders” examine an issue? How successful was the Black Power movement in advancing civil rights? What does the backlash to the Black Power movement say about American society? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: Students will need to be familiar with the Civil Rights movement from the Montgomery Bus Boycott to the passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act. Step-by-step guide: HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 53 1. While entering the classroom students will answer the prompt projected on the screen or written on the board, “Based on what you have learned so far, how effective was the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s? Explain.” Students should align themselves within a barometer activity. One side of the room should represent complete effectiveness and the other side should represent not effective at all. Students have to line up based on how their answer compares to their ideological neighbors. This should last around 20 minutes. 2. Students will then begin watching The Black Power Mixtape 1967-1975 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O_dCL2F571Q). Frequent breaks should be taken in order to discuss a summary of the film. Additionally, the question from the starter activity should be revisited as well as the guiding question and supporting questions. The film is around 90 minutes, so it will go into a second day of class. Below are questions that can be used with the essential and guiding questions as a discussion guide. a. What role does nonviolent protest play in the early Civil Rights Movement and what reaction do many of the Black Power Movement have to nonviolence? What justifications are used? b. How should a historian reconcile oral history and written sources? 3. After the documentary has been finished on day 2 of the lesson, students should write a short essay evaluating the usefulness of oral history as a form of historiography as well as its usefulness as a form of historiography of the Black Power movement. Special focus should be paid to the guiding question and essential questions. Lesson Plan 7: Living History and Postmodern Historiography HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 54 Objective: Students will evaluate the effectiveness of postmodern historiography and create their own historiography based upon their interpretation of the course content. DESK Standards: Content Standards (4.1 Crisis and conservatism, 4.2 The US as a lone superpower; contemporary challenges) Skills Standards (2.4 Identify, describe, and explain how specific examples of evidence support a historical claim) (3.4 Identify patterns among or connections between historical developments and processes) (4.4 Use historical reasoning to explain relationships among pieces of historical evidence) (5.4 Evaluate the reliability and/or usefulness of a source.) Guiding Question: How much does the interpretation of history rely upon not only the sources used, but also the historian making the interpretation. Supporting Questions: How reliable are sources created after the event. What do omissions of memory tell us about history? How is power created by selection of sources and narrative? Prerequisite student knowledge: Students should be familiar with all of the course to that point. The reason students should be finished with the course is so that students can ask probing questions in the interview. Step-by-step guide: 1. Before the lesson, students will need to be given homework. The timeline for the assignment should be at least one week in order to allow students to complete the assignment at a necessary level of thoroughness. Students will interview a parent, family member, or older adult about the following events in recent history and the interviewee’s experience. Students should take either written or audio notes of the interview Some HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 55 events are listed below. The events suggested is not a comprehensive or required list, but is merely a list of possible suggestions. a. Vietnam War b. Watergate c. Election of 1980 d. Persian Gulf War e. Oklahoma City Bombing f. Impeachment of Bill Clinton g. Election of 2000 h. September 11th Attacks i. Iraq War j. Hurricane Katrina k. The Great Recession of 2008 l. Election of 2008 m. Obergefell v. Hodges Supreme Court Decision (Gay Marriage Legalization) n. Election of 2016 o. Impeachment of Donald Trump 2. After students have completed the interviews, they will come to class and answer the following question on a sheet of paper, “How reliable of a source do you believe you interviewer is? Explain.” The class can line up with a barometer activity for the reliability of the interviewed. Class discussion should occur. A second question to introduce in the discussion to help later in the lesson is, “what make a reliable source.” This should last around 20 minutes HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 56 3. The class should participate in a graffiti board activity to construct the primary sources into a narrative. Naturally the class should discuss what is written. For example, the invasion of Iraq may have interviewees who enthusiastically served as well as interviewees who protested the war. Students should be asked, “can both of these interpretations be right?” This part of the class should last around 70 minutes. Each event that is included in the activity should be individually discussed. Specifically, one prompt to get students thinking critically is, “What do you feel is the most significant component of (the event)? 4. On the second day of the lesson, students should compare the accounts generated by the interviews and the accounts from the textbook and other sources used earlier in the class. This should last around 30 minutes. Focus should be paid to the following questions a. What is a reliable source? b. Does the textbook include information we could not find in our interviews? Is the textbook reliable? How do we know? c. Do our interviews contain information not found in the textbook? Was the person being interviews reliable? How do we know? 5. Students should have the remainder of the period to write about how they personally analyze history. The prompt should be, “Can history claim to be objective at all? Are you objective when making historical accounts? What is your method?” This personal historiography should focus on the methods used to find sources, which sources are used more frequently, what motivations take primacy, and other accompanying factors. The end of the assignment should be an example of the student making a historical interpretation using the personal historiography that they created. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 57 Lesson Plan 8: The United States and Whiggish Historiography Objective: Students will evaluate the claim that, “history is a cycle of progress” through the lens of American history found throughout the course DESK Standards: Content Standards (All Content Standards) Skills Standards (2.4 Identify, describe, and explain how specific examples of evidence support a historical claim) (3.4 Identify patterns among or connections between historical developments and processes) (4.4 Use historical reasoning to explain relationships among pieces of historical evidence) (5.4 Evaluate the reliability and/or usefulness of a source.) Guiding Question: Is history a long march towards progress? Explain. Supporting Questions: How have race relations changed since 1880? How has the economy changed since 1880? How has America’s global role changed since 1880? How has the American family changed since 1880? How has American government changed since 1880? Prerequisite Student Knowledge: This is the last lesson and students will need to be familiar with the general themes from throughout the course. Step-by-step guide: 1. While entering the classroom students will answer the prompt projected on the screen or written on the board, “Is progress inevitable in history?” Students will participate in a two-minute interview activity asking the same question and then switch roles. This should last around 15 minutes. 2. After students write their answers, they will be given a choice of topic for a final essay. The choices are below. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 58 a. Race b. Economy c. International Relations d. Family and Gender e. Government 3. Students will research the history of the United States since 1880 in the subfield that was chosen. Students may pick within a subfield as well. For example, if a student chooses international relations, they can choose the relationship between Russia and the United states. The research may take as long as students need or the amount of time available for research. Student research should focus on events that define the field of research. 4. The format for the essay which may begin the after the research is as follows. First, the introductory paragraph should make a clear claim statement that supports the historiographical guiding question, “Is history a long march towards progress? Explain.”. The three body paragraphs should include three detailed examples of history making progress or failing to make progress. The essay should conclude with a standard conclusion paragraph summarizing the student’s argument and selling the claim. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 59 DISCUSSION The production of a guide of historiography for the classroom teacher required extensive reading of advanced theory and analysis of historiographical theory. While the project was rewarding, the outcome was not fully realized. The scope of historiography is broad and becomes too broad for a Master’s project when including the associated topics required for specific critical analysis. The selection of topics and sources, an integral part of historiography, requires a more in-depth investigation of pedagogical content knowledge. Similarly, understanding schools of historiography not only requires a strong background in seminal historical texts, but also works of philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, and linguistics. Historiography cannot be fully understood by reading a ten-page guide. However, the guide can serve as an introduction to the topics at hand. The readings and research cited in the literature review took many hours to curate and place in the context of historiography in the classroom. The average classroom teacher may lack the time to pursue independent research of historiography as well as complete teaching, lesson planning, administrative meetings, and extracurricular responsibilities within an 8-hour work day. Ideally, this guide will spark interest in educators to pursue study of the historiography in the secondary classroom. Feedback from fellow educators indicated a couple of areas that needed revision. First, several of the lesson plans did not go into enough pedagogical detail. More specific instructions were created in order to give teachers and students more precise directions. Additionally, lesson plans were revised to include more questions linking historiography to the historical content of the lessons, placing historical perspective in context with the different schools of historiography. One area of further research should focus on the implementation and effectiveness of historiography instruction in teacher education programs. Another line of additional research and HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 60 study should be including historiography instruction and pedagogical techniques in professional development. These methods could be explored as a school-wide history department and it can also be a part of professional development in a district-wide workshop for all teachers of a single class offering. Personally, the author of this project will direct future study at further integrating historiographical practice with education initiatives such as standards-based grading, professional learning communities, and project-based learning. HISTORIOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM 61 REFERENCES Achinstein, B., & Fogo, B. (2015). Mentoring novices’ teaching of historical reasoning: Opportunities for pedagogical content knowledge development through mentor- facilitated practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 45, 45–58. Appleby, J. (1997). The power of historiography. 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