COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 2 Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................4 Comparison of Mental Health and Social Support for Non-First-Time College Students in China and the United States .......................................................................................................5 Literature Review ...................................................................................................................... 7 Pathways to Acquire Undergraduate Higher Education .....................................................7 China ............................................................................................................................7 The United States .......................................................................................................14 Non-First-Time College Students .....................................................................................17 Students Who Come from Three-Year Colleges to Universities or Colleges in China ................................................................................................................................... 17 Students Who Transfer from 2-Year to 4-Year Institutions in the United States ......18 Non-First-Time College Students & Mental Health .........................................................18 Non-First-Time College Students’ Mental Health in China .............................................19 Non-First-Time College Students’ Mental Health in the United States .................... 20 Non-First-Time College Students & Social Support ........................................................ 21 Non-First-Time College Students’ Social Support in China ..................................... 22 Non-First-Time College Students’ Social Support in the United States ................... 23 Mental Health & Social Support for Non-First-Time College Students .......................... 23 Method .....................................................................................................................................26 Data collection .................................................................................................................. 27 Institutional Contexts of Study Sample ..................................................................... 27 Participants ....................................................................................................................... 28 Demographic Information ................................................................................................ 28 Survey ............................................................................................................................... 30 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 3 Survey Data Collection Procedures ........................................................................... 32 Data analysis .....................................................................................................................32 Data analysis tools ..................................................................................................... 32 Results ......................................................................................................................................33 Social Support ...................................................................................................................33 Mental Health ................................................................................................................... 35 Social Support & Mental Health .......................................................................................37 Discussion ................................................................................................................................38 Social Support ...................................................................................................................38 Roles of student advisors ........................................................................................... 39 Economic factors ....................................................................................................... 40 Peer support ............................................................................................................... 41 Major Selection ..........................................................................................................41 Mental Health ................................................................................................................... 42 Social Support & Mental Health .......................................................................................43 Limitations ........................................................................................................................45 China ..........................................................................................................................45 The United States .......................................................................................................45 Implications ............................................................................................................................. 46 China .................................................................................................................................46 United States .....................................................................................................................47 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 48 References ................................................................................................................................50 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 4 Abstract This study aims to compare the mental health and social support of non-first-time college students in China and the United States. Through surveys collected from 371 Chinese students who upgraded from junior college to university in China and 40 transfer students in the United States, I found a significant negative correlation between social support and mental health scores, indicating that students with less social support are more likely to experience mental health issues. Additionally, we observed that the mental health status and social support of Chinese students are significantly higher than that of American transfer students. These findings underscore the importance of social support for the mental health of students who upgrade from junior college to university and suggest relevant intervention measures and educational recommendations. COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 5 Comparison of Mental Health and Social Support for Non-First-Time College Students in China and the United States There is a close interrelationship between education and mental health. A good educational environment promotes the formation and development of mental health. The psychological health of college students is an important prerequisite for the development of mental health education in current higher education. However, the current psychological health of Chinese college students is not optimistic. Fan et al. (2001) investigated the psychological health of 6,000 college students from 23 colleges and universities in Beijing and found that 16% of the students had moderate or more severe psychological problems. Lin et al. (2015) sampled students from 24 colleges and universities in Shanghai and found that 15.8% of the students had growth and developmental problems, and 13.3% of the students had problems with interpersonal relationships. In a meta-study on the relationship between college students' social support and depressive mood, Yang et al. (2016) stated that the relationship between social support and depression among Chinese college students is very strong. These challenges are amplified for non-first-time college students, who transfer from a junior college to a four-year universities or colleges, due to factors such as changes in the environment and loss of academic advantages (Cao, 2013). However, there is still a lack of research on the relationship between mental health and social support that focuses on nonfirst-time college students. Transfer students from community colleges, vocational colleges, etc., in the United States, are also referred to as non-first-time college students (Landry, 2018). Flaga (2006) argues that this group of students, who are transitioning from community colleges or vocational colleges to four-year colleges and universities, not only undergo a shift in their identities but also in terms of the rigor of their academic requirements and other aspects of their education. Collaboration between community colleges and academic advisors at four- COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 6 year universities has been shown to provide some social assistance to transfer students (Flaga, 2002). However, after transferring, dropout rates increase (Nora et al.,2011) and degree nonattainment rates increase (Kimbark et al., 2017; Windham et al., 2014). As with Chinese nonfirst-time college students, there is also a relative dearth of research on the mental health status of this group of students upon entering a new institution in the United States. The purpose of this study is to investigate the mental health and social support for non-first-time (i.e., transfer) college students, such as Chinese junior college students and United States community college transfer students.This study was designed to gain an understanding of the relationship between the mental health status and social support of this group of students after entering a new postsecondary environment. I also compare the experiences of students in China and the United States to examine differences in their mental health and social supports and explore the reasons for any differences across country contexts. Accordingly, this study addresses the following research questions: 1. What is the relationship between non-first-time college students’ mental health and their access to social support systems? 2. How does the mental health of non-first-time college students in Chinese 3-year colleges compare to non-first-time college students in United States universities or colleges? 3. How does the access to social support systems for non-first-time college students in Chinese 3-year colleges compare to non-first-time college students in United States universities or colleges? The findings from this study may help subsequent researchers investigate social support systems and mental health for non-first-time college students. At the same time, I hope that this study can help add social support resources for non-first-time college students and increase attention to the mental health of such students with a fresh perspective. COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 7 Literature Review Due to the differences in the education systems of each country, I will first introduce the types of university and college settings. Then, I provide an overview of the current state of research that has focused on the mental health and social support of non-first-time college students in China and the United States. Pathways to Acquire Undergraduate Higher Education There are differences in higher education initiatives between China and the United States because of the differences in national conditions, social environments, and institutions in the two countries. China is more committed to the principle of equality and fairness, gradually realizing and guaranteeing the equality of opportunity in Gaokao (Wei, 2020). In contrast, in the United States, due to the absence of regional differences in admissions scores and targets, the focus is on the realization of the principle of disparity, which guarantees real access to higher education in terms of outcomes (Wei, 2020). The main target of this study is those who acquire undergraduate higher education. Next, I will detail the access to undergraduate education based on the education systems in China and the United States. In China, the classification is based on the examination method, while in the United States, the classification is based on the number of years of school attendance. Based on differences in education systems and cultural, the following section describes categorization differences. China According to the 16th rule of the Law of the People's Republic of China on Higher Education (1999), higher education is divided into junior college education, undergraduate education, and graduate education. The 18th rule stipulates that universities and independent COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 8 colleges mainly implement undergraduate education and education above the undergraduate level. Junior colleges implement professional training. There are several ways to get an undergraduate education: College Entrance Examination. Nationwide Unified Examination for Admissions to General Universities and Colleges, referred to as the "college entrance examination", is an annual national examination in contemporary China. It is also often translated as "Gaokao". It is a selective examination for qualified high school graduates or candidates with equivalent qualifications (Examination Center of the Ministry of Education of China, 2019). In the 20th century, the Gaokao system went through many changes. In 1949, higher education institutions enrolled students individually. In 1952, it was changed to a unified national enrollment system. In 1966, China's "Cultural Revolution" began, and it was proposed to abolish the Gaokao, and colleges and universities ceased to enroll students. In 1971, colleges and universities gradually held trial classes and resumed enrollment, although the conditions for admission were still restrictive. In 1977, the Gaokao was officially restored, and reforms were implemented in many aspects (Liu, 2007). The Gaokao is a major social event that is closely related to livelihood issues. Since 2003, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as MOE of PRC, 2001) changed the Gaokao to June 7, 8, and 9 each year. In 2020, the Gaokao was postponed to July 7th and 8th due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and some provinces of the new Gaokao were changed to July 7th-10th instead. The current Gaokao programs are divided into three main categories: "3+X" (the nationally accepted program), "3+3", and "3+1+2" ("Gaokao", 2021). The numbers and letters represent subjects. Each province's implementation of its own Gaokao is approved by the MOE of PRC. However, regardless of the scheme, Chinese, Mathematics, and foreign languages are always compulsory subjects. At the end of the Gaokao, students wishing to enroll in a university must first wait for COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 9 the provinces to provide a score line that qualifies them to enroll in an undergraduate school, and then fill out a university application based on the students' scores, as well as the appropriate national policies. In China, filling out university applications is not something that students can do on their own at will or at any time. If they do not meet the required minimum score, they are not eligible to attend undergraduate schools. Taking the policy released by Jiangsu Province in 2023 as an example, the Gaokao volunteer application adopts the mode of "institutional specialty group + specialty (class)". The general category (i.e., candidates taking purely cultural subject examinations) and sports candidates implement parallel volunteering in each batch, while art candidates are different. Volunteering means that you meet the score line for an undergraduate degree, and in order to increase your chances of getting into an undergraduate degree, you are allowed to enroll in several schools. However, even if you want to get into these schools yourself, the schools may not necessarily accept you for enrollment. This is because it also depends on the several schools you apply to, their own enrollment numbers as well as their conditions. When it comes to volunteering, if you don't choose your schools correctly, there is a chance that a student may not have a school to attend, even if he or she meets the undergraduate score line. We call this "slippage". The first stage of filling in the undergraduate colleges and universities specialized group volunteers, divided into two batches. The second stage is to fill in the professional group volunteers of junior college batch institutions. If they do not reach the volunteering score line, candidates may choose to repeat the course or enter society to look for a job, according to their own wishes. In a document issued by the MOE of PRC (2006), it is stipulated that the size of full-time enrollment in general undergraduate colleges should be at least 5,000. The size of full-time enrollment in universities should be at least 8,000, with the number of graduate students in the university not less than 5% of the total number of full- COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 10 time enrollments. Strictly speaking, there is no authoritative organization to determine the classification of Chinese universities and colleges. However, on the Internet and in the private sector, some people refer to the first batch of undergraduate colleges and universities as the "first level" and the second batch of undergraduate colleges and universities as the "second level". Such a division still has to be made according to the specialties of each major, so it can't be regarded as an official name. Due to changes in Gaokao policy, for example, in Shanghai, the third batch of undergraduate colleges and universities has been abolished, which is known as the "third level", and will be partially merged with the second level of colleges and universities, or directly into the junior colleges batch. MOE of PRC (2023) reported in a news article about the 2023 Gaokao that 12.91 million candidates had enrolled in the program, an increase of 980,000 candidates over the 2022 program. Relevant studies have shown that the detection rate of anxiety disorders among students in the senior grades of general high schools is high. It is due to factors such as the intense competition of the Gaokao (Chen et al., 2017), which indicates that the relevant departments and personnel need to further strengthen their work on mental health education for students. To Upgrade from Junior College to University Examination. Candidates who take the Gaokao but fail to reach the higher education undergraduate minimum score can apply for higher education junior colleges. The basic training period of general junior college education is 2-3 years. To improve their education and obtain a bachelor's degree as well as a diploma, students who have completed the last year of their junior college education can apply to upgrade from junior college to university examination on their own. The undergraduate school for application can be a public university or a private or independent college. Generally, each candidate has only one opportunity to apply for the examination during the COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 11 school period, the examination is organized by the provinces themselves. To upgrade from junior college to university examination, also be called a general higher education college to undergraduate examination. This is China's higher education system of junior college level students, to ordinary undergraduate schools or professional continued study of the examination system ("专升本", 2023). Students who pass the examination and are admitted to the university or college will be enrolled in the year they graduate from the junior college. It is in accordance with the stipulated schedule of the undergraduate school to which they have applied. Upon enrollment, two additional years of study begin in the third year of the undergraduate program, which is equivalent to the need for another junior year. Upon completion of the undergraduate program, students will receive the same "general higher education diploma" as those who enrolled in the Gaokao, however, it will be labeled as "junior college undergraduate program" or "two-year undergraduate program." Adult Higher Education Examination. Adult higher education is a purposeful, planned, and organized higher education activity for working and practicing people through multiple ways and formats based on secondary education (Zheng, 2009). Radio and television universities, staff higher schools, vocational and technical colleges, farmers' higher schools, management cadres' colleges, colleges of education, independent correspondence colleges, and colleges of adult (continuing) education belonging to general colleges and universities that have been validated and approved by the the Ministry of Education of China (MOE) to hold adult higher degree education are allowed to implement the unified enrollment of the whole country under national reversion. The examination is organized by the provinces themselves. This type of examination, also known as the Adult Higher Education Examination, is divided into three main forms of advancement: high school to junior college, high school to undergraduate, and junior college to undergraduate. After admission, the forms COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 12 of study are divided into off-the-job, amateur, and correspondence ("成人高等学校招生全国 统一考试", 2023). The development of adult higher education is currently facing serious quality challenges due to factors such as too low a threshold for admission and enrollment, schools' emphasis on general higher education, unlawful enrollment and operation, lack of education and teaching implementation, and poor student sources (Ma, 2004; Fang, 2023). Relevant education departments, as well as school management personnel, are still researching and improving on this issue. Self-Study Examination. According to rule 2 of the Interim Regulations on the Higher Education Self-Study Examination, which was revised and issued by the MOE of PRC in 2014, the Higher Education Self-Study Examination is a national examination for higher education that focuses on the degree examination, and it is a form of higher education that combines individual self-study, social assistance, and national examination. Self-study examination has the characteristics of flexible learning mode, small work-study contradiction, low cost, the implementation of lenient entry and strict exit, and the separation of teaching and examination (Ministry of Education Educational Examination Office, n.d.). At present, there are the following problems in the self-study examination: the examination and counseling charges are on the low side; the examination plan is not strong; there are few brand-name training institutions for social assistance; the overall design of the test paper is difficult to match the social requirements for the training of the examiners; it is difficult to separate the proposing of the questions from the counseling; the information network for social assistance is not sound; and the role of ordinary colleges and universities in participating in the social assistance is not played adequately (Song, 2007; Xiong et al., 2023). al., 2023). Although the self-study examination still has many areas for improvement, it shoulders the mission of improving the overall quality of farmers. The development of rural COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 13 self-study examination is conducive to the increase of farmers' income and is of great significance to the construction of a harmonious rural society (Liu, 2007). The National Open University. In the Comprehensive Reform Program of the National Open University issued by MOE of PRC in 2020, it is stated that the National Open University is a new type of higher education institution established in June 2012 based on the Central Radio and Television University (CRTU). It is a new type of higher education institution directly under the Ministry of Education (MOE), with the mission of promoting lifelong learning, supported by modern information technology, and characterized by "Internet+", and open education for the whole country. The National Open University is a schooling entity with its own schooling organization system. According to the relevant documents, this system mainly consists of headquarters, branches, colleges (regional colleges and industrial colleges), and learning centers (Yang, 2013). Under the deployment requirements of China's Party Central Committee and State Council on strengthening the work of aging in the new era, the MOE of PRC in 2022 issued a relevant document, pointing out that the National Open University added the brand of China University of the Elderly. Beijing is one of the earliest regions in the country to enter the aging society. In terms of the current situation of Beijing Open University for the Elderly, it has the following critical issues: policies and regulations are missing; the level of schooling is low and the scale is small; the teaching system is incomplete, and the quality of schooling is yet to be improved (Ai et al., 2023). In order to improve the sense of well-being and access of the elderly group, the senior open university will continue to exist and optimize in the future. Secondary Vocational School—Applied Undergraduate Education Through Training Model. In recent years, China has introduced regular reforms in the field of vocational education, and one such reform is the "secondary vocational school-applied undergraduate education". This is a talent cultivation model that aims to improve the quality COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 14 of technical talent cultivation in China (Lin et al., 2016). In 2014, the Shanghai Municipal Commission of Education issued a relevant document, officially launching the pilot work of "secondary vocational school-applied undergraduate education". The academic system is severn years, and the pilot program focuses on technical skills. After graduating from a secondary vocational school, students can upgrade their degree to undergraduate by transferring to another school. However, as a model of system construction, there are objective conflicts between undergraduate colleges and vocational schools at the level of retype, talent cultivation objectives, and curriculum teaching (Xia et al., 2016). Therefore, in September 2020, nine departments, including the MOE of PRC, have issued a communication on the Action Plan for Improving the Quality and Excellence of Vocational Education (2020-2023). It proposed to "standardize the through-training of technical and skilled talents in the long-term academic system, and gradually abolish the through-training of undergraduates in secondary vocational education" (MOE of PRC et al., 2020). The United States Institutions of higher education in the United States can be categorized into three levels. The first type includes universities that primarily improve education at the graduate level; such universities generally also provide education at the undergraduate level at the same time. The second type—other four-year colleges (liberal arts and sciences colleges, etc.)—primarily provide undergraduate education, and the third type—two-year colleges— primarily provide basic and vocational education (Chen, 1986). In this paper, undergraduate higher education is categorized into the following two groups based on the academic year system as well as the type of school: 4-year university and colleges. Four-year schools include universities and colleges. These schools primarily offer coursework for bachelor's degrees, which usually take four COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 15 years to complete (Dworkin, 1996). In some cases, they are also able to offer graduate and professional programs. The cost of education at these types of schools will vary depending on the educational institution. For example, the public or private, and whether the residency status is in-state or out-of-state. Public and private colleges and universities, typically award 4-year bachelor's degrees in a variety of academic fields. Examples include Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. Four-year schools usually consist of a variety of colleges or schools (Learn org, n.d.). Higher education was established as a collection of scholars to protect the common good and is a driver of government and socio-economic development. At the beginning of the last century, four-year academic institutions faced a significant challenge in the form of academic attrition. In the 1970s, many colleges and universities were forced to better enroll and moderate enrollment as the population of traditional college students between the ages of 18-24 began to shrink (Schneider, 2010). Porter (1989) conducted a study of students who persisted in going through the college process within six years. Its results reported lower rates of diploma completion than expected in the early literature. Schneider (2010) reported that about 30% of students who start college in the fall do not return to that college the next year. Also, only about 60% of students graduate from "four-year" colleges and universities within six years. Nemtcan (2023) indicated that there are three types of academic attrition: leaving permanently, changing colleges, and changing fields of study. There is a significant relationship between procrastination and these three categories of student attrition. Additionally, academic self-efficacy was more strongly correlated with academic attrition compared to traditional students. In conclusion, reducing the impact of academic attrition on universities continues to require further research and development assistance in the future. 2-year colleges. Two-year colleges educate more than one-third of the students in the United States. These schools are an important part of the American higher education system COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 16 (Brint et al., 2006). Two-year (also called junior and community colleges) in the United States were originally founded at the University of Chicago. In 1892, Chicago's president, Mr. Harper, proposed that the first and second years of college be divided into two parts, along with the third and fourth years. This was because it would allow students who were otherwise naturally inept or unsuited to learn to stop learning naturally and unobtrusively at the end of the second year (Deegan et al., 1985). I will focus on the current mainstream two-year colleges in the United States: community colleges, and career colleges. Community Colleges. American community colleges emerged in the early twentieth century. Science has advanced by leaps and bounds during this century. This is because it is believed that the more principles one learns, the faster society develops. Whereas new technologies require skilled operators, their training can be done by schools (Kisker, 2023, p. 30). Thus, community colleges for vocational education were developed. Community colleges are an important step for millions of students to achieve their educational goals. In addition to population expansion, the increase in community college enrollment can be attributed to several factors: upperclassmen participation; financial aid; part-time attendance patterns; and others (Horn et al., 2011). After earning a diploma or associate degree at a community college, students have the option of transferring to a four-year college or university to pursue a baccalaureate degree. Horn et al.'s (2011) study showed that 80% of community college students have an educational goal of earning a bachelor's degree or higher. This is related to the idea that community students want to be successful in the future and their success is influenced by several factors at the institution. Calcagno et al. (2008) suggest that the size of a relatively large institution, the percentage of adjunct faculty and minority students, and the success of community college students can be negatively correlated. Vocational colleges. This type of college will also be referred to as a vocational school or trade school. When it comes to higher education, vocational schools are COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 17 traditionally different from four-year colleges. They are primarily focused on training students for a specific job in one of the skilled trades rather than providing academic training subjects for students pursuing professional careers (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). The Association for Career and Technical Education (ACTE) is an American global education association dedicated to promoting career and technical education, or vocational education, to prepare youth and adults for careers. In recent years, career colleges have received increased popularity, but the number of U.S. government-funded career colleges is decreasing dramatically (Rich, 2011). Non-First-Time College Students After explaining the pathways to undergraduate education in both countries, I will refer to students who upgrade from junior college to university in China, students from twoyear schools to four-year schools in the U.S., and transfer students, collectively as non-firsttime college students. Simply put, they are non-first-time higher education students. Students Who Come from Three-Year Colleges to Universities or Colleges in China To upgrade their degree, students who upgrade from junior college to university in China can independently apply for the examination of junior college to undergraduate school in the last year of completing their college education. These students, at the stage of junior college study, have already received higher education, and most of them have a relatively solid cultural foundation (Sun, 2010). Therefore, after entering undergraduate studies, they are not entering the higher education system for the first time. However, due to the differences in the training mode and teaching methods between junior college and undergraduate higher education, the education of these students after entering undergraduate studies needs to be further studied. COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 18 Students Who Transfer from 2-Year to 4-Year Institutions in the United States In the United States, after graduating from two-year colleges and vocational colleges with an associate degree, students can apply to four-year colleges for a higher degree. In addition, transferring before completing an associate degree or to another college or university is a reasonable, common pathway. Generally, a transfer student is someone who starts their college academic career at one institution, earns some credits by completing courses, and then for whatever reason decides to transfer to another school to complete their education (Ryan, n.d.). According to the change in degree, student transfers can be broadly categorized into two types: lateral transfers and vertical transfers (Shealy et al., 2013). A lateral transfer, for example, is when a student can transfer from a school pursuing an associate or bachelor's degree to a school pursuing an equivalent diploma. A vertical transfer, on the other hand, is a transfer from a school pursuing an associate degree to a school pursuing a bachelor's degree. For example, students from community colleges or vocational colleges who transfer to a fouryear university. Such students, however, face many challenges as a result of the change in schools (Wawrzynski et al., 2003). Some community college transfer students report experiencing higher academic standards at the new four-year colleges, including faster-paced classes and a greater emphasis on writing (Townsend, 1995). Students have also been known to reverse transfer from a four-year school, to a two-year school, due to factors such as tuition costs and the desire to be closer to home (Townsend, 1999). Non-First-Time College Students & Mental Health The World Health Organization's assertion that there is no health without mental health has been endorsed by the Pan-American Health Organization, the European Union's Council of Ministers, the World Federation for Mental Health, and the Royal College of COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 19 Psychiatrists (Prince et al., 2007). Mental health is a psychological state in which the process of basic human mental activities is completely content and coherent, i.e., cognition, emotion, will, behavior, and personality are complete and coordinated and can adapt to society and keep pace with it (Chen, 2020). Factors such as environmental changes and loss of academic strength can produce many changes in psychological states in a new school for non-first-time students. For example, self-doubt in acquiring competence (Schmertz & Carney, 2013), and susceptibility to low self-esteem and self-importance (Zhang et al., 2006). In the following section, I will explain the research related to the mental health of non-first-time college students in China and the United States. Non-First-Time College Students’ Mental Health in China Students who upgrade from junior college to university differ in many ways from traditional students who enter university through Gaokao due to the complexity of their educational experience. These students have had three years of junior college educational experience before entering undergraduate studies. They have a certain professional foundation and life experience and therefore have the advantage of clear learning goals and cognitive maturity over traditional students (Cai, 2023). Under the influence of culture, Chinese parents exhibit different manifestations of educational expectations for their children. Given the intense competition in Chinese education, many parents eagerly desire their children to achieve excellent academic performance, leading them to compare their children with others in society. Parental social comparison can be seen as a form of psychological control exerted on their children. Furthermore, Chinese parents typically place great importance on maintaining face. If a child's academic results are unsatisfactory, parents may criticize them as being incompetent, and those particularly concerned with their face may feel embarrassed in front of others. As a COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 20 result, these parents often experience higher levels of test anxiety. According to the research findings of Le et al. (2023), parental educational expectations have an impact on children's psychological reactance through the mediating effect. Additionally, the parental attitude towards tests plays a moderating role between parental educational expectations and children's psychological reactance. When parents excessively impose their educational blueprint on their children's educational journey, it can lead to negative consequences. Therefore, if parents can maintain reasonable educational expectations and a positive attitude towards exams for their children, it will contribute to shaping their children's positive behavior and, to some extent, alleviate the parents' own anxiety. Li (2010) investigated the mental health status of students who upgrade from junior college to university by using the Symptom Check List-90 (SCL-90) scale. The results showed that the students who upgraded from junior college to university had significant differences in the five dimensions of interpersonal sensitivity, hostility, phobia, paranoia, and psychoticism compared with traditional undergraduates. Cao et al.'s (2013) survey also showed that the number of students who upgraded from junior college to university felt that they were under a lot of stress during their college years accounted for 35.21%; academic stress accounted for 33.62%; and problems with employment and their future accounted for 25.63%. Among them, academic pressure and employment pressure are the main parts of psychological pressure felt by students who upgrade from junior college to university. Positive emotions are an important protective factor for the mental health of individuals; however, long-term psychological stress can cause individuals to develop a crisis of physical and mental disorders (Tugade et al., 2004). Non-First-Time College Students’ Mental Health in the United States The reality in many large urban schools in the United States is that more than 50% of COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 21 students exhibit serious learning, behavioral, and emotional problems (Center for Mental Health in Schools, 2003). One growing problem is that more and more adolescents who exhibit emotional disturbance, misbehavior, and learning problems are often labeled psychiatric. They exhibit severe internal basics such as attention deficit, depression, and learning disabilities (Adelman et al., 2006). A study by Daltry et al. (2016) showed that transfer students who visited a counseling center exhibited higher levels of depression and social anxiety symptoms compared to nontransfer students who visited a counseling center. While it has been hypothesized that community college transfer students would experience greater difficulties than transfer students from four-year institutions (Townsend & Wilson, 2006) because the adjustment process is more challenging, Daltry et. al. 's (2016) study showed no significant differences between the two groups of students. Additionally, Mehr et al. (2016) found that transfer students suffered from more severe depressive symptoms (e.g., hopelessness, social isolation, sadness, crying) and social anxiety (e.g., feeling uncomfortable in the company of others; feeling judged or disliked in interpersonal interactions), as well as more severe academic and family problems. For students who are not first-time academy entrants, these types of difficulties can hurt their transition experience and their mental health. Non-First-Time College Students & Social Support So far, there is no unified definition of social support, and the study of Cheng et al. (2004) indicated that current scholars define social support from three perspectives, namely, social interaction, the nature of social behavior, and the role of social resources. Although there are different ways of saying it, most people believe that social support is the moral and material support that individuals receive from the social relationships they have (social relationships refer to family members, relatives, friends, coworkers, groups, organizations, COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 22 and communities, etc.) and that these supports can alleviate the individual's psychological stress response, relieve mental states, and improve social adaptability (Liu et al., 2010). Non-First-Time College Students’ Social Support in China Currently, there are numerous studies on social support for ordinary undergraduate college students in China, but the literature discussing social support for students who upgrade from junior college to university is very scarce. In China National Knowledge Internet, only one piece of literature matching the topic was searched. Therefore, Zhou et al.'s (2014) survey of students who upgrade from junior college to university in nursing is an important reference for this study. Their results found that the socio-cultural environment of these students changes when they enter a new school and the social support itself changes. Students who upgrade from junior college to university with a nursing degree background have higher utilization of social support than those who upgrade from junior college to university without a nursing degree background; students who upgrade from junior college to university with a nursing degree background have a more common language among themselves, and closer interpersonal relationships exist among them (Zhou et al., 2014). According to Zhang's (2024) research, the level of social support among college students has a significant positive impact on their subjective well-being. When college students receive increased levels of formal and informal support (from sources such as family, friends, teachers, the school, and the government), it promotes the development of their personal aspirations, psychological resilience, and ability to overcome setbacks, reduces psychological anxiety, and enhances subjective well-being. However, current research on social support for college students mainly focuses on understanding the concept of social support. This paper aims to explore the impact of social support on the psychological wellbeing of non-first-time college students from multiple dimensions, including family, peers, COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 23 and the university. Non-First-Time College Students’ Social Support in the United States Compared to China, there will be relatively more research on non-first-time college entrants such as transfer students from community colleges in the United States. Many studies have a relatively vague conceptualization of transfer students, with some literature referring to students who have graduated from a two-year school and then moved on to a four-year college, and some referring to students who have vertically moved on from a twoyear school to a new school. However, this does not conflict with this study's definition of a non-first-time college student, so it will not be overdone in the specific study. Dennis et al. (2008) found that students with high levels of peer support had the greatest academic adjustments after transferring. Several studies by Townsend (2006; 2008; 2009) indicated that transfer students typically had smaller social networks at their new institutions. Additionally, "campus culture shock" can lead to unsupportive faculty and advisors, difficulty forming new peer groups, and accessing support services, which negatively impact academic and social life (Cepeda, 2021). Shaow et al.'s (2017) survey showed that transitioning from a community college to a four-year university necessitated three areas of support for transfer students: emotional support (parents and friends), practical support (financial support and cooking), and campus capital (faculty, staff, and campusspecific information). Overall, research has been conducted to indicate that non-first-time college students benefit from social support, but also experience adjustment difficulties when social support is lacking. Mental Health & Social Support for Non-First-Time College Students The interpersonal theory model proposes that individuals with lower levels of social COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 24 support are more likely to experience depression when stressful life events occur (Cohen et al., 1985). Liu et al. (2010), clearly indicate that good social support contributes to the development of human physical and mental health, and inversely, lack of or poor social support impairs an individual's physical and mental development. In addition, Liu also pointed out that different components of social support have different effects on an individual's physical and mental health and are influenced by factors such as culture and context. As a major global public health emergency, the COVID-19 pandemic has had significant impacts on various social groups, characterized by its rapid spread, wide-ranging infections, long duration, and difficulty in prevention and control. According to Ge et al. (2020), college students are prone to experiencing negative emotions such as psychological panic and anxiety when facing the COVID-19 pandemic, exhibiting obvious stress responses. Therefore, it is necessary to pay special attention to and provide psychological support for college students. In this context, I will explore the relationship between the mental health of non-first-year college students and social support during the COVID-19 pandemic, based on the interpersonal relationship model. Firstly, social support can provide emotional support. During the pandemic, students may face the dilemma of being separated from family, friends, and classmates, feeling lonely and anxious. Due to the restrictions imposed by the pandemic, students cannot gather with friends, go on planned trips, and the start of the school year may be postponed, leading to spending longer periods at home. Faced with these sudden and prolonged restrictions, college students are prone to negative emotions such as low mood, boredom, depression, and anxiety. Many students may become addicted to their phones and lack motivation for studying. Furthermore, spending extended periods of time with parents may lead to communication difficulties and family conflicts. Students may also excessively focus on their own and their COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 25 family's health conditions, leading to excessive panic and increasing their psychological burden. However, by establishing connections with others and receiving emotional support, students can alleviate negative emotions, enhance psychological resilience, and improve mental health. For example, during the pandemic, student advisors in Chinese universities and colleges provided telephone or online counseling to understand students' health conditions, offer coping strategies, and help them overcome negative emotions. Some schools organized online events to compensate for the disappointment of not being able to participate in traditional graduation ceremonies. Various crisis resources related to mental health were made available to students. Parents can learn how to improve parent-child communication through online programs. Secondly, social support can also provide informational support. During the pandemic, college students may face information asymmetry and uncertainty, not knowing how to cope with the challenges brought about by the pandemic. By engaging in communication and accessing informational support from others, students can obtain accurate information about the pandemic, practical advice, and coping strategies, which can help them better cope with difficulties and alleviate psychological stress. Whether in China or the United States, official media outlets provide real-time updates on the pandemic situation and debunk unreasonable public opinions. Students can also obtain information through familiar online social platforms such as WeChat, Facebook, or Instagram. Schools also timely release educational-related information on their official websites. For graduating students, job pressure is a major concern. However, schools and society have made maximum efforts to accommodate this, pushing information to students through faculty and staff as well as official websites. Furthermore, social support can provide tangible support. During the pandemic, college students may face challenges such as living difficulties, academic pressure, and COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 26 economic hardship. Social support can include financial aid, material assistance, and practical actions. Many schools provide financial aid and scholarships to help students facing economic difficulties. Community organizations and volunteer groups also provide assistance in terms of food, medication, and other supplies to meet students' basic needs. Additionally, schools offer online learning resources and support to help students overcome learning difficulties and maintain their motivation to study. This is not only a challenge but also a significant reform in the history of education. In summary, social support has a significant impact on the mental health of non-firstyear college students. By providing emotional support, informational support, and tangible support, social support can alleviate students' negative emotions, enhance psychological resilience, and help them cope with difficulties and pressures. Colleges, communities, and families can establish support networks, promote mutual assistance and support among students, provide necessary resources and services, and jointly address the challenges brought about by the pandemic. However, in the existing literature, there is still a lack of research on the relationship between mental health and social support for students who upgrade from junior college to university in China, students who upgrade from two-year colleges to four-year schools in the United States, and transfer students who are not first-time college students. In addition, comparative studies based on cultural differences have not been conducted. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between mental health and social support among non-first-time college entrants in China and the United States and to make comparisons in order to fill the gaps in the existing research content. Method This study employed a quantitative research method utilizing a web-based questionnaire to survey eligible current students. This method facilitated efficient data COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 27 collection and analysis, and I was also able to obtain comprehensive and class-comparative data that allowed for in-depth analysis and interpretation of the relationship between mental health and social support among non-first-time college students in both the United States and China. Data collection Institutional Contexts of Study Sample Chinese Institution. Jiading College, established in 2005, was a non-profit full-time private undergraduate institution recognized by the Ministry of Education of China. The institution had been enrolling students who upgraded from junior college to university since 2017. The student affairs department of this college conducted a test on the mental health level of the incoming students of the class of 2023. Huang (2023), director of this school’s Mental Health and Counseling Center, reported that the results of this survey showed that 12.5% of students who upgraded from junior college to university had mental illness and 12.96% had psychological distress. Therefore, categorizing this school as a research target was consistent with the theme of this study. The United States Institution. “Northern Utah University” offered many mental health support services for current students, such as counseling, mental health education, and support groups, which allowed non-first-time college students to receive professional psychological help and support. In addition, the campus community at Northern Utah University provided a rich social support network of friendly peer relationships, mentorship, and student organization activities to provide emotional and social support for non-first-time entering college students. COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 28 Participants Chinese students completed the survey by distributing the QR code of the questionnaires to the class online contact group through the student advisors. Students in the United States were sent the questionnaire by email. Students participating in the survey did not receive any form of compensation in this study. Students participating in the survey had to meet the following three requirements: ● 18 years of age or older; ● Current student at Northern Utah University or Shanghai Normal University Tianhua College; ● Must be a non-first-time college student at an institution above (students who are not pursuing higher education studies for the first time at that institution, such as transfer students). The sample included 597 adult education students from Jiading College, China, and 72 transfer students from North Utah University, USA. To ensure the validity of the data, any questionnaire meeting one of the following criteria would be considered invalid and subsequently excluded: completion time less than 2 minutes; at least 20% of items left unanswered; respondents who were not current students or first-time college entrants; patterned responses (repetitive or singular choices). Combined with Chinese social and cultural customs, most adult education students are expected to be unmarried. Therefore, samples selecting child support in the social support questionnaire were excluded. Consequently, the final sample size consisted of 371 Chinese students (response rate: 62.14%) and 40 American students (response rate: 55.56%). Demographic Information Participants self-reported their gender, age, academic college, and grade level. Please 29 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT refer to Tables 1-4 for specific details. Table 1 Numbers of Non-first-time College Students by Gender Variable China U.S. Male 48 7 Female 313 33 Non-binary/ third gender 0 0 Prefer not to say 10 0 Total 371 40 Table 2 Numbers of Non-first-time College Students by Age Variable China U.S. Under 18 years old 1 0 18-25 years old 369 30 25-35 years old 1 6 35 and above 0 4 Total 371 40 Table 3.1 Numbers of Non-first-time College Students in China by Academic Colleges Variable Number of individuals College of Art and Design 25 College of Preschool Education 159 College of Health 3 College of Elementary Education 3 College of Business 149 College of Artificial Intelligence 1 30 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT College of Language and Culture 31 Table 3.2 Numbers of Non-first-time College Students in U.S. by Academic Colleges Number of individuals Variable College of Arts & Humanities 2 College of Health Professions 10 College of Education 3 College of Science 15 College of Social & Behavioral Sciences 4 Engineering, Applied Science & Technology 7 College of Business & Economics Engaged Learning, Honors, and Interdisciplinary Programs Note. There were five participants who chose two academic colleges. 2 0 Table 4 Numbers of Chinese Non-first-time College Students by Grade Level Total Variable China U.S. Freshman 0 0 Sophomore 0 8 Junior 211 24 Senior 160 8 371 40 Survey The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) and the Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS) were used in this study. Some basic demographic information, such as age and gender, was added in conjunction with the needs of the study. COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 31 The General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). The GHQ was developed by Goldberg (1979) and has been translated into 38 languages. The original 60-item GHQ was developed by Goldberg, but shorter versions such as the GHQ-30, GHQ-28, GHQ-12, etc. are currently in use. Currently, the latter two types are more commonly used, and the reliability of the GHQ-28 total scale and its subscales is high. According to existing studies, it has been indicated that the questionnaire has high retest reliability (0.78-0.9; Robinson & Price, 1982), and inter-assessor and intra-assessor reliability performs well (Cronbach's α 0.9-0.95) (Failde & Ramos, 2000). Chen et al. (2010) concluded that it is a highly effective scale when used for the measurement of the overall mental health of college students. The questionnaire consists of 28 items comprised of four factors, namely somatic symptoms, anxiety/insomnia, social dysfunction, and major depression. The GHQ-28 provides an overall picture of the subject's psychological state and is also able to screen out individuals with pathological states. The GHQ-28 version has a minimum score of 0 and a maximum score of 84. Higher scores indicate higher levels of distress. Goldberg (1979) recommended that total scores of 23 or less should be categorized as nonpsychotic, whereas participants with scores >24 may be categorized as psychotic, but this score is not an absolute cutoff. Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS). Xiao (1986) designed a 10-item Social Support Rating Scale, which was adapted from was adapted from the National Longitudinal Study of High School Students. In 1990, Xiao revised the scale based on use condition. The scale includes three dimensions: objective support, subjective support, and utilization of support. Higher scores indicate better social support. The current widely used social support rating scale has a reasonable questionnaire design, with easy-to-understand entries and good reliability and validity (Cronbach's α = 0.98; Li, 2023). Due to socio-cultural and other differences, most of the Chinese students in this study were unmarried youth. American COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 32 students, on the other hand, may be married or pregnant. Therefore, some of the regulations were modified, such as adding "spouse" to "lover" and "colleague" to "classmate". Survey Data Collection Procedures I utilized the QuestionStar website for questionnaire distribution and data collection. This decision was based on the ease and reliability of its widespread use in Chinese universities and research institutions. For American students, I relied on the official school website for questionnaire distribution and data collection. This choice took into account the relevance of the university as a research subject as well as its popularity and authority in the field of education in the United States. By utilizing both platforms, we aimed to ensure that the study would be accessible to a diverse population of students from different countries in an appropriate setting and that the data would be accurate and reliable. Data analysis After data collection, I performed an initial cleaning of the data, including outlier exclusion, treatment of missing values, and format conversion. This process was completed before proceeding to further analysis. Subsequently, I conducted applied statistical analyses such as correlation and regression analysis. Based on the obtained data results, I conducted an exhaustive analysis and presented the results in the form of visualization charts. This series of data processing and analysis steps aimed to extract meaningful information and provide accurate and reliable results for the study. Data analysis tools To achieve richer statistical analyses, data processing in this study was performed using RStudio. Widely used in academia, the field of data science, and in statistical learning, R software is known for its exceptional flexibility and customizability. Its powerful features 33 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT and extensive community support allowed researchers to perform highly customizable data processing operations and had the flexibility to respond to complex statistical analysis needs. By choosing R Studio as the data processing tool, this study was able to take full advantage of its strengths and provide accurate and credible statistical analysis support for the findings. Results Social Support Participants' perceptions of the social support they receive from family, friends, and society have been assessed through completion of the Social Support Rating Scale (SSRS). The scale consisted of three dimensions: Objective Support (OS), Subjective Support (SS), and Utilization of Support (UOS). The total score (SSRS) was the sum of scores from the three dimensions. Scores equal to or less than 22 indicated low social support, scores ranging from 23 to 44 indicated moderate social support, and scores of 45 and above indicated high social support. Based on this participant sample, the SSRS demonstrated acceptable reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .60 for Chinese student questionnaire; Cronbach's alpha = .72 for American student questionnaire). Table 5 Descriptive Statistics of Social Support for Non-first-time College Students China U.S. Variabl e n M SD n M SD OS 371 8.86 2.32 40 6.85 2.26 SS 371 16.36 3.82 40 18.35 3.64 UOS 371 7.55 1.8 40 6.65 1.83 SSRS 371 32.77 6 40 31.85 6.55 Note. OS = objective support; SS = subjective support; UOS = utilization of support; SSRS = social support. COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 34 In the subjective support section, 104 Chinese students as well as 16 American students answered having support from other family members. The top three answers were: pets, brother-in-law or sister-in-law, and parents-in-law. In the utilization of support section, in addition to the established options, Chinese students believed that, for example, a dance studio teacher and anime characters would also give them comfort and care. Descriptive statistics of participants' social support has been provided in Table 5. Table 6 shares the significance test of the mean difference in social support among students from two schools across students in China and in the United States. On the dimension of OS, there was a highly significant difference among non-first-time college students between the two schools in China and the United States (t=5.331, p<0.001***). Similarly, significant differences were observed between the students of these two schools in terms of SS and UOS (t=-3.275, p<0.01**; t=2.954, p<0.01**). However, in terms of overall scores on the SSRS, the average scores of students from the two schools were very close and there was no significant difference (t=0.847, p>0.05). Table 6 Independent Samples T-test for Social Support for Non-first-time College Students Variable t df p OS 5.331 48.320 <0.001*** SS -3.275 48.755 0.001951** UOS 2.954 47.48 0.004864** SSRS 0.847 46.341 0.4016 Note. OS = objective support; SS = subjective support; UOS = utilization of support; SSRS = social support. **p<0.01. ***p<0.001. Examined through a categorization lens—i.e., scores equal to or less than 22 indicated low social support, scores ranging from 23 to 44 indicated moderate social support, and scores of 45 and above indicated high social support—the vast majority of participants in COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 35 both the U.S. and Chinese samples indicated having moderate levels of social support (Figure 1). Figure 1 Stacked Bar Chart of Social Support Levels Comparison Between China and U.S. Mental Health To assess participants' mental health status, participants completed the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28). The questionnaire consists of 28 total items comprising four factors (seven items each): somatic symptoms (SSY), anxiety/insomnia (AI), social dysfunction (SD), and major depression (MD). Each factor includes seven items. The total score (GH) is the sum of scores from the four factors. Higher scores indicate higher levels of distress. Participants with a total score of 23 or below are classified as having a healthy status, while those with scores above 24 are classified as having a non-healthy status. Based on this participant sample, the GHQ-28 demonstrates acceptable reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .93 for Chinese student questionnaire; Cronbach's alpha = .93 for American student questionnaire). Descriptive statistical analysis regarding participants' mental health can be found in Table 7. Table 7 36 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT Descriptive Statistics of Mental Health for Non-first-time College Students China U.S. Variabl e n M SD n M SD SSY 371 5.94 3.42 40 9.07 4.58 AI 371 4.95 3.87 40 11.05 5.26 SD 371 7.02 2.27 40 9.78 3.85 MD 371 4.03 3.96 40 6.95 5.8 GH 371 21.94 10.99 40 36.85 16.01 Note. SSY = somatic symptoms; AI = anxiety/insomnia; SD = social dysfunction ; MD = major depression; GH = mental health. Table horizontal SD represents the standard deviation. The average scores for U.S. students were higher across all four mental health factors, and 75% of U.S. participants were categorized as unhealthy (Figure 2), considerably more than the proportion of Chinese participants (41%). Figure 2 Stacked Bar Chart of Mental Health Levels Comparison between China and U.S. Table 8 presents the significance test of the mean difference in mental health among students from two schools across different countries. Among non-first-time college students from the two schools in China and the United States, there have been highly significant COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 37 differences observed across the three sub-dimensions of SSY, AI, and SD (t=-4.203, p=0.001***; t=-7.128, p<0.001***; t=-4.454; p<0.001***). In the MD dimension, significant differences have been found between students from the two schools (t=-3.113, p<0.01**). On the overall score GH, there have been highly significant differences observed between students from the two schools (t=-5.745, p<0.001***). Table 8 Independent Samples T-test for Mental Health for Non-first-time College Students Variable t df p SSY -4.203 43.815 0.001*** AI -7.128 43.675 <0.001*** SD -4.454 41.98 <0.001*** MD -3.113 43.004 0.003** GH -5.745 43.048 <0.001*** Note. SSY = somatic symptoms; AI = anxiety/insomnia; SD = social dysfunction ; MD = major depression; GH = mental health. **p<0.01.***p<0.001. Social Support & Mental Health To understand the relationship between social support and mental health among nonfirst-time college students in China and the United States, I conducted Pearson's productmoment correlation analysis. The results showed that the social support scores and mental health scores of Chinese students who upgrade from junior college to university and American transfer students were both significantly and strongly negatively correlated. The correlation analysis data for both variables are presented in Table 9. Table 9 Correlating Social Support and Mental Health for Non-First-Time College Students 38 COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT China Variable t df cor U.S. t p -7.3371 369 -0.3568 <0.001*** df cor p -3.9555 38 -0.5401 <0.001*** Note. **p<0.01.***p<0.001. As Figure 3 illustrates, for both U.S. and Chinese students, mental health significantly correlated with social support, where students who reported less social support generally also reported worse mental health and those with more social support generally had better mental health. That relationship was stronger for the U.S. students than the Chinese students. Figure 3 Scatterplot of Social Support and Mental Health for Non-First-Time College Students Note. Blue represents data for Chinese students and red represents data for American students. Discussion Social Support According to the results, there was no significant overall difference in social support COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 39 among non-first-time college students between the two schools in China and the United States. However, Chinese students scored significantly higher than American students in all three dimensions. This can be attributed to several factors: Roles of student advisors In the United States, the primary responsibility of student advisors is academic counseling. Pre-transfer counseling can be conducted before students transfer from community colleges to four-year colleges. Pre-transfer counseling can be defined as formal or informal advice from college counselors (Hayes et al., 2020). Pre-transfer advice typically focuses on helping students plan their course of study and successfully transfer credits to four-year colleges or universities (Hayes et al., 2020). After transfer students successfully enter four-year schools, in addition to academic advice, student advisors in the United States also provide transfer students with scholarship information and help them develop planning, problem-solving, and decision-making skills (Allen et al., 2014). In contrast, the roles of student advisors at China are more extensive. According to Regulation No. 43 of the Ministry of Education of China (2017), the working responsibilities of student advisors include nine aspects: ideological and theoretical education and value guidance; party and league construction; academic atmosphere construction; daily affairs management of students; mental health education and counseling work; online ideological and political education; campus crisis response; career planning and employment guidance; theoretical and practical research. For example, at Jiading University, student advisors reside in student dormitories most of the time in order to promptly address student issues. In addition to caring about students' daily class attendance, each student advisor must conduct at least three dormitory rounds (e.g. checking students' dormitory hygiene, electricity safety, and study conditions) COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 40 per week, each lasting no less than half an hour. To care about student development and promote home-school contact, each student advisor must contact students' parents at least once every semester. Student advisors also assist financially disadvantaged students in applying for student loans and scholarships. In general, Chinese university student advisors are available whenever students need them. Even during vacations, student advisors help students solve problems. Although this type of work is often referred to as "senior nanny" by the outside world, student advisors are the most reliable social support for students during their university years, especially for students who have just entered university, such as those upgrading from junior college. Economic factors Lucas et al. (2020) found that financial, rather than reputational, social, or academic integration, is the primary theme influencing American students' decisions to drop out or leave. Due to cultural differences, American parents expect their children to be more independent. After reaching adulthood, many students choose to work to earn tuition and living expenses while completing their studies. This phenomenon also occurs among transfer students. Even with scholarships available, they may not cover all students. In contrast, parents in China have always liked and been accustomed to participating in their children's academic and personal lives. Combined with the Confucian cultural context in traditional Chinese culture, Chinese parents have high expectations for their children to "become dragons and phoenixes," and providing material support for tuition fees and living expenses is an important aspect of Chinese parents' involvement in their children's development (Tong, 2023). In addition, the tuition fees for most regular majors at Chinese universities or colleges are basically between 5000-6000 RMB. The tuition fees for private schools and non-regular majors (such as arts, sports, and Sino-foreign cooperation programs) are significantly higher COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 41 than those for regular majors, but overall lower than those for American universities or colleges (Wan, 2021). Therefore, compared to American students, Chinese students receive more financial support. Peer support Social relationships are a key part of late adolescence and early adulthood, and besides parents/family, peers are the most common source of social support. Dennis et al. (2008) found that students with high levels of peer support experienced the greatest academic adjustment after transfer. Compared to non-transfer students, transfer students typically have smaller social networks at their new schools. Coupled with "campus culture shock," this may lead to a lack of support from teachers and advisors, making it difficult for transfer students to form new peer groups and access support services (Cepeda et al., 2021). Unlike the modular system at American universities, students who upgrade from junior college to university in China participate in the form of classes. From the initial class management of upgrading, it has formed the current widespread individual class arrangement management. Although there are some special features in the upgrading classes, under the coordinated management of the school, student advisors, and class cadres, students in these classes are more adapted to learning and living in new institutions (Fang, 2016). In addition, most Chinese universities and colleges require students to live on campus during class time. Therefore, the connection between students who upgrade from junior college to university is not only in learning but also in life. Major Selection Casey et al. (2019) found that transfer advisors can provide information and support to students during the transfer process. They offer guidance on specific majors of interest to transfer students and facilitate credit transfers. Since students who upgrade from junior COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 42 college to university need to take exams and can only be admitted after their grades meet the requirements of the school they are applying to, American transfer students have more autonomy in choosing their undergraduate majors compared to students in China. When students who upgrade from junior college to university have a low sense of professional identity, they often lack plans for their future careers and confidence. They are prone to avoiding exposure, and unwilling to actively seek help, or express their needs, leading to a lack of opportunities for social support (Wang et al., 2023). Furthermore, the strong employment awareness among Chinese students who upgrade from junior college to university (Fang, 2016) may increase their demand for social support. Laanan et al. (2011) pointed out that feelings of shame as transfer students are negatively correlated with seeking academic counseling and student motivation, indicating a reduced likelihood of seeking support. Mental Health According to the results of this study, there was a highly significant difference in the average mental health scores of non-first-time college students between the two schools in China and the United States, with Chinese students scoring lower than students in the United States. In other words, the average mental health status of students who upgrade from junior college to university in China was rated better than that of transfer students in the United States. According to Mehr and Daltry (2016), research indicates that transfer students in the United States exhibit higher levels of mental health issues compared to non-transfer students. Transfer students are more prone to experiencing high levels of depressive symptoms (such as hopelessness, social isolation) and social anxiety (for example, discomfort in social interactions; feeling judged or disliked in interpersonal interactions), as well as greater COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 43 academic and family-related problems. The study also found that transfer students engage less in sports activities and campus organizations but work more hours per week. Challenges in adapting to new institutional cultures, insufficient information during the transfer process, and a lack of social connections in the new institution can lead to transfer adjustment issues (Townsend & Wilson, 2006). Therefore, transfer students often struggle to embrace new campus cultures, establish rapport with instructors in classrooms, and engage in social activities with peers. These difficulties may have negative impacts on their experiences, potentially leading to or exacerbating psychological distress, such as depression, anxiety, feelings of inferiority, and somatic complaints. Additionally, if transfer students are also first-generation college students in their families, they face even more unique challenges. Students with more personal support experiences may encounter fewer mental health issues, thus achieving higher academic opportunities (Mikell & Davis, 2022). Zhang et al. (2006) reported that students who upgraded from junior college in China experience difficulties in adapting to environmental changes, lack of ideals or goals, and external pressures from society, family, etc., leading to the emergence of mental health issues. However, factors such as close relationships with advisors and peers, as well as high levels of parental involvement in life, in China may contribute to the differences in mental health between non-first-time college students in China and the United States. Social Support & Mental Health According to the results, both in China and the United States, social support and mental health scores of non-first-time college students are significantly negatively correlated. This indicates that the more social support they receive, the healthier their mental state. This is consistent with previous research findings. Social support, as a supportive resource or behavior, plays a crucial role in COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 44 maintaining general positive emotional experiences. The different components of social support have varying effects on mental health and are influenced by factors such as attachment styles, personality, context, and culture. The benefits of receiving social support in college are well-known. Students who receive social support are more likely to have better physical health (Hale et al., 2005) and mental health (Khallad & Jabr, 2015). Liu and Huang (2010) proposed three main mechanisms through which social support influences mental health: the main effect model, buffering effect model, and dynamic effect model. The main effect model suggests that having a robust social support system can provide individuals with positive emotional experiences and stable social rewards, closely linked to one's overall mental state. The buffering effect model posits that social support can buffer the impact of stress on individuals. The key factor in social support as a stress buffer is individuals' perception that others will provide appropriate support, thereby alleviating emotional and physiological reactions to stress. Cornwell (2003) suggests that social support, stress, and mental health variables form a compound relationship in terms of concepts, methodology, and empirical relationships, proposing the viewpoint of the dynamic effect model. The dynamic effect model suggests that both social support and stress simultaneously act as independent variables affecting individuals' physical and mental health. Their relationship is not merely linear but may vary, sometimes exhibiting curvilinear patterns or stage changes, and may even involve threshold relationships, all of which evolve over time. Based on these perspectives, it can be inferred that social support may play a crucial role in promoting the mental health of non-first-time college students. A robust social support system can provide emotional comfort, stability, and a sense of belonging, positively impacting their overall well-being. Additionally, social support can act as a buffer against the challenges faced by these students in academics, finances, and social life. Considering the dynamic nature of the relationship between social support, stress, and mental health, COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 45 interventions should be tailored to the specific needs and circumstances of non-first-time college students. Thus, by fostering a supportive campus environment, schools can promote the mental health and social support of non-first-time college students, thereby enhancing their learning and quality of life. In this study, although the relationship between social support and mental health of non-first-time college students was elucidated, the underlying mechanisms between the two variables and the social support networks of non-first-time college students need to be further explored in future research. Limitations China In the research conducted in China, the representativeness of the sample is also limited. As Shanghai is a first-tier city in China, its social support system is relatively comprehensive, which may result in significant differences in social environments compared to other cities. Furthermore, the college surveyed is a private undergraduate institution, which may differ from public schools in terms of educational resources and student backgrounds. These factors could potentially influence the psychological states and behaviors of students, thus requiring careful consideration when interpreting and generalizing the research findings. The United States In the United States, a major limitation faced by the study is the lack of broad representativeness in the sample. This is primarily because all students are from the same university, meaning that the characteristics of transfer students in the study may not be widely representative. This may also lead to an overemphasis on specific traits or backgrounds within the student population, while overlooking potential differences that may exist among students from other types of universities. Second, the U.S. sample size for this COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 46 study was small. Additionally, there may be internal factors influencing the study results, such as the teaching environment, cultural background of the student body, and support systems within the university. Consequently, the generalizability and applicability of the study findings may be compromised by the specific characteristics of the university or the particular types of students included. Implications There are important implications for this study that can positively impact social supports for transfer students in China and the United States that will reduce challenges students face with their mental health. Because each country has its own cultures, policies, systems of social support, familial expectations and involvement, etc. I organize the implications by country. China My first recommendation based on the findings of this research is to expand campus resources to provide diverse and comprehensive support and assistance. In addition to establishing specialized mental health centers, schools can also strengthen the development and information dissemination of student service centers to provide more comprehensive student services for non-first-time college students. This includes academic counseling, employment guidance, social security services, health care services, and more, to provide students with more diversified support and assistance. Schools can cooperate with communities or external enterprises to establish support projects to provide more social support and assistance for non-first-time college students. These projects can include social work services, volunteer activities, social practice projects, etc. Enhancing collaboration between junior and undergraduate colleges and strengthening the connection between junior and undergraduate education systems. In COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 47 order to better support the learning and development of students who upgraded from junior college, it is necessary to strengthen the cooperation and communication between junior and undergraduate colleges. We can establish a robust cooperation mechanism, collaboratively formulate relevant policies and measures, and ensure a smoother transition for students progressing from junior college.Through the cooperation of junior and undergraduate schools, more support and resources can be provided to help students who upgraded from junior college successfully complete their studies and smoothly transition to undergraduate learning and life. Schools can strengthen communication and cooperation with parents of nonfirst-time college students in various ways. One example, such as holding regular parent meetings and issuing parent newsletters. Through these channels, schools can introduce parents to the school's educational philosophy, students' learning situations, and support services provided by the school to enhance trust and cooperation between home and school. Schools can also actively establish mechanisms for parental involvement in education, inviting parents to participate in school management and educational activities through events such as parent open days. Particularly for students who upgraded from junior college, parental support and attention are crucial to their learning and mental health. United States In addition to serving as academic advisors, university counselors' responsibilities can be further expanded. They can discuss the importance of disseminating vital information to transfer students, such as information about activities, organizations, and clubs, as well as ways to join them (Townsend & Wilson, 2006), as well as healthcare, housing, and the local community. In any case, university counselors can directly educate new transfer students about transfer shocks, normalize adaptation challenges, describe COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 48 warning signs of psychological distress, and provide resource information before difficulties arise. To increase attendance rates, incentives such as eligibility for drawings may be useful if they attend all meetings. Faced with cultural shock or adjustment changes of a new institution, non-firsttime college students need to cultivate a positive mindset. Students can actively seek resources and support services provided by schools and communities, such as mental health counseling services, academic guidance, and social activities. Schools need to actively publicize relevant resources and information on campus during the new student registration period, such as student support centers or counseling services, writing centers, etc. Additionally, if away from home, non-first-time college students can still maintain contact with family and friends through modern communication tools. The support and encouragement of family and friends can help them through the adaptation period and maintain mental health. The utilization of community resources is also crucial for non-first-time college students. Community mental health services are usually confidential and can provide personalized support and counseling for students. Various activities and volunteer projects organized by the community can help these students establish connections and friendships with other community members, increasing their social support network. Additionally, local libraries, cultural centers, fitness activities, and religious groups can all help non-first-time college students access rich support and assistance, thus promoting social integration and mental health. Conclusion This study explores the relationship between social support and mental health among non-first-time college students. A survey was conducted among 371 students who upgraded from junior college to university in China and 40 transfer students in the United States. It was COMPARISON OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SOCIAL SUPPORT 49 found that there was no significant difference in social support between students from China and the United States, while there was a highly significant difference in mental health. Additionally, a significant correlation was observed between social support levels and mental health among students from both countries. 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