The Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges Faced by Chinese Teachers and Their Coping Strategies by Yang Ou A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION with an emphasis in CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION WEBER STATE UNIVERSITY Ogden, Utah December 5, 2025 Approved David Byrd David Byrd (Jan 6, 2026 16:13:47 MST) David R. Byrd, Ph.D. DeeDee Mower DeeDee Mower (Jan 6, 2026 13:06:12 MST) DeeDee Mower, Ph.D. Katarina Anderson, Ph.D. 2 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Abstract Chinese dual language immersion (DLI) programs are an important component of education in the United States; however, Chinese teachers working in these programs often encounter cross-cultural communication challenges related to differences in educational philosophies, classroom practices, and school–home relationships. This qualitative case study examined how Chinese DLI teachers experience cross-cultural communication challenges and the strategies they use to respond to them. Using a comparative case study design, this study examined two Chinese DLI teachers at different career stages in Utah elementary schools. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, classroom and video-based observations, and participant reflections. Grounded theory methods and phenomenology were employed as complementary analytic approaches, with triangulation used to enhance credibility. The findings indicated that cross-cultural differences were most evident in classroom management, pedagogical expectations and teacher roles, parent communication, and workplace culture. To address these challenges, teachers relied on strategies such as establishing consistent routines, adjusting instructional stances, shifting professional roles, collaborating with English partner teachers, and integrating cultural experiences into instruction. Although both teachers adopted similar strategies, their approaches differed based on teaching experience and school context. Overall, the study suggests that cross-cultural adaptation in Chinese DLI classrooms is a dynamic and context-sensitive process. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of Chinese immersion teachers’ lived experiences and highlight the importance of flexible collaboration structures and culturally responsive support in dual language immersion programs. 3 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis chair, Dr. David Byrd, for his exceptional guidance, patience, and unwavering support throughout the entire research process. His clear direction, thoughtful feedback, and consistent encouragement were instrumental in shaping this study. I would also like to sincerely thank my committee members, Dr. DeeDee Mower and Dr. Katarina Anderson, for their careful reading of this work, insightful comments, and thoughtful suggestions throughout the research process. Their guidance and professional support contributed meaningfully to the development of this study. 4 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Contents Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 7 Dual Language Immersion (DLI) Programs ............................................................................... 7 Global Communication ............................................................................................................. 10 Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges in Chinese Dual Language Immersion Programs 10 Teaching in Dual Language Immersion Programs ................................................................... 11 Research Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 12 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 12 Data and Methods ......................................................................................................................... 13 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 13 Data Collection Procedures....................................................................................................... 14 Observational Notes .................................................................................................................. 16 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................................ 18 Results ........................................................................................................................................... 20 Teacher A’s Story ..................................................................................................................... 20 Establishing and Enforcing Classroom Rules ...................................................................... 21 Transformation of the Teacher’s Role .................................................................................. 23 High Expectations for Students ............................................................................................. 24 Home–School Communication.............................................................................................. 24 English Partner as a Key Resource ...................................................................................... 25 Professional Development and Workplace Environment ..................................................... 26 Cultural Engagement Enhancing Instruction ....................................................................... 27 Teacher B’s Story ..................................................................................................................... 28 5 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Establishing Classroom Routines and a Sense of Time ........................................................ 28 Shift in Teaching Philosophy ................................................................................................ 29 Peer Support and Instructional Focus .................................................................................. 31 Home–School Communication.............................................................................................. 32 The Importance of an English Partner ................................................................................. 34 Team Collaboration and Professional Growth..................................................................... 35 Cultural Activities as a Pathway to Language Learning ...................................................... 36 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................... 37 Where Cross-Cultural Differences Are Manifested (RQ1) ...................................................... 38 Classroom Management and Student Behavior .................................................................... 38 Pedagogical Expectations and Teacher Roles ...................................................................... 39 Parent Communication ......................................................................................................... 39 Workplace Culture and Support ........................................................................................... 40 How Teachers Respond to Cross-Cultural Challenges (RQ2) .................................................. 40 Routines................................................................................................................................. 40 Instructional Stance .............................................................................................................. 41 Role Shifts ............................................................................................................................. 41 Collaboration Structures ...................................................................................................... 41 Cultural Integration .............................................................................................................. 42 Limitations .................................................................................................................................... 42 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 43 References ..................................................................................................................................... 45 6 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS The Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges Faced by Chinese Teachers and Their Coping Strategies Mandarin Chinese language programs have gained increased attention. In the United States, there were 227,086 Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) learners enrolled during the 2014–15 academic year (American Councils for International Education, 2017). Based on the 2021 national survey of Dual Language Immersion (DLI) programs, there are 312 Chinese DLI programs in the United States, ranking second only to Spanish DLI programs (Roberts, 2021). Language immersion programs strive to achieve three goals: achieving academic success at or above grade level, fostering additive bilingualism/biliteracy, and cultivating cultural or multicultural competence (Tedick & Wesely, 2015; Lessow-Hurley, 2012). Although Chinese DLI programs have grown considerably in popularity and have welldefined educational objectives, teachers in those programs have trouble with cross-cultural communication or the ability to foster teacher-student relationships, collaborate with colleagues, and navigate differing educational philosophies (Chen, 2019). Most Chinese teachers in DLI programs originate from China, where they were raised, educated, and began their teaching careers. In contrast, the students in DLI classrooms are predominantly American, with some possibly hailing from immigrant families of various nationalities. This diversity in cultural backgrounds and educational philosophies between teachers, students, and their families can lead to misunderstandings and misinterpretations (Xu, 2012), creating communication barriers that hinder the establishment of positive teacher-student and school-home relationships, thus impacting the formation of supportive learning environments. This not only affects students' academic performance and engagement in the learning process but also influences their and their parents' perceptions and experiences of Chinese immersion programs (Alexander & Weise, 7 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS 2018). Moreover, Chinese teachers working in schools may struggle to adapt to the differing expectations and requirements inherent in the American educational system, stemming from their upbringing and professional backgrounds (Liao et al., 2017). This challenge may make it difficult for them to integrate into the school community and collaborate effectively with colleagues (Yan & Davis, 2023), ultimately affecting their job performance, job satisfaction, professional development, and potentially, the educational quality and learning outcomes of students in Chinese immersion programs. This study will explore the challenges and adjustments faced by Chinese immersion teachers in DLI programs, focusing on their experiences and strategies for navigating the complexities of cross-cultural communication. Literature Review Dual Language Immersion (DLI) Programs The Dual Language Immersion (DLI) is an educational model intended to foster bilingualism and biliteracy by providing immersive instruction in fundamental academic subjects, including mathematics, science, and language arts (Steele et al., 2019). In these programs, educators use the target language to teach various subjects, allowing students to acquire most of their knowledge in a second, foreign, heritage, or indigenous language (Chen et al., 2024). Language immersion education, originating in Quebec, Canada (Lambert & Tucker, 1972), has played a pivotal role in shaping Canadian approach to bilingualism. Since the enactment of the Official Languages Act in 1967, Canada has been officially bilingual in English and French, using its educational system to promote linguistic connections through FrenchEnglish immersion programs. This approach has set a global standard for immersion education, demonstrating notable success (Lessow-Hurley, 2012). Research indicates that while students 8 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS may initially lag in English literacy, they eventually catch up and excel. Moreover, these programs help students achieve higher proficiency in the second language and foster a deeper cultural understanding compared to those who learn the language separately (Lessow-Hurley, 2012). The widespread implementation of dual language instruction in Canada has significantly contributed to its educational success and has become a prominent feature of the Canadian education system. The success of these programs in Canada has sparked interest and adoption in other countries. In the United States, various immersion program models are currently in operation, including Enrichment Immersion Programs, which immerse monolingual English speakers in a second language. The Culver City Spanish Immersion Program in California, established in 1971, is the earliest example of implementing the Canadian immersion model in the U.S. TwoWay Immersion Programs involve immersing monolingual English-speaking children in a second language alongside limited English proficient children who are native speakers of that language. This model, first launched in San Diego, California, in 1975, has since been adopted nationwide. Additionally, political pressure to shift away from primary language instruction has led to experimentation with English immersion programs, also known as structured immersion (Lessow-Hurley, 2012). In recent years, there has also been a growing interest in integrating Chinese into DLI programs. This is driven by the increasing global importance of Mandarin and the desire to equip students with skills that are valuable in a globalized economy. Data indicate that the number of nationwide Mandarin Chinese programs surged from 71 to 264 between 2011 and 2018 in the United States (Weise, 2018). In less than a decade, the number of students enrolled in Chinese language programs in public schools in the United States surged from 60,000 to over 200,000 9 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS (Yan & Davis, 2023). As a developing program, Chinese dual language immersion programs have received positive feedback overall from students' parents (Sung, 2020) and have experienced rapid growth. Mandarin-English dual language immersion programs (MDLIP), which involve students in learning curriculum content in both Mandarin Chinese and English, have experienced rapid expansion in the United States, with 67.9% of MDLIPs being at the elementary level (Wong & Tian, 2022). This growing interest is exemplified by specific initiatives, such as the Dual Language Immersion program in Utah, which was established in 2008 to help students achieve proficiency in a second language, preparing them for future careers in the global economy (Wikipedia, n.d.). That same year, the Utah Senate approved the International Initiatives (Utah Legislature, 2008), which provided funding for schools to launch dual language immersion programs in Chinese, French, and Spanish. In addition, the Governor’s Language Summit and the Governor’s World Language Council were created to develop a K-12 language roadmap for the state. By 2010, educators were challenged to implement one hundred dual language immersion programs by 2015, aiming to enroll 30,000 students. Today, enrollment far exceeds that initial goal (Utah Dual Language Immersion, n.d.). Immersion programs vary in the amount of instructional time allocated to each language. For instance, some programs provide total immersion with instruction entirely in the target language, while others use varying ratios such as 90% Chinese and 10% English, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40, or 50/50. Programs with a 50/50 model for teaching Chinese and English might refer to themselves as dual language immersion programs (Alexander & Weise, 2018). Since this paper focuses on the Chinese immersion program in Utah, which uses a fifty-fifty model (Utah Dual Language, n.d.), it will concentrate on this 50/50 approach. 10 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Global Communication Cross-cultural communication theory investigates how individuals from various countries, ethnic backgrounds, and cultures can effectively collaborate and communicate. This involves addressing language barriers, interpreting nonverbal signals from different cultures, and finding the best methods to convey ideas across cultural gaps (MasterClass, 2022). Cross-cultural communication encompasses spoken and written language, body language, as well as the nuances of etiquette and protocol (Hurn & Tomalin, 2013). It involves understanding and valuing how one’s own culture has influenced oneself, just as one acknowledges how other cultures have shaped the people around them and the ways in which they interact (Jacobs, 2012). Globalization, along with a range of job opportunities, international strategic alliances, and advancements in technology, has resulted in people being exposed to a variety of cultures and subcultures (Sahadevan & Sumangala, 2021). Entering the workforce typically involves interacting with colleagues, clients, vendors, and customers from various regions around the globe. Mastery of cross-cultural communication and awareness of unconscious biases are crucial for navigating a global business environment and building successful relationships with international partners (Yeshiva University SYMS School of Business, 2023). Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges in Chinese Dual Language Immersion Programs Dual Language Immersion (DLI) methodologies are effective in language arts in both languages. Research suggests that methods such as character-writing training, the chunking technique, and shared singing of picture books help maintain retention of the target language (Zhou & Li, 2017). Evaluations of immersion programs also indicate improvements in dents’ 11 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS performance across subjects such as mathematics and English, and studies show that students in Chinese immersion programs typically develop strong reading and vocabulary skills in both English and Chinese (Lü, 2020). These language arts methods, however, may have short-term results since the focus has not been on cross-cultural communication, which ensures fluency not only through knowing vocabulary in each language but also through being able to use that vocabulary appropriately within cultural contexts. Teaching in Dual Language Immersion Programs Despite how the subject matter is being taught, many Chinese immersion teachers come from Chinese speaking countries. In Chinese immersion programs in the United States, it is common for a Chinese teacher and a U.S. teacher to form a teaching pair to jointly carry out instructional tasks. Paired teachers frequently experienced misinterpretations and misunderstandings in discourse and behaviors due to linguistic and cultural differences and expectations (Hill, 2019). For example, the study described how Western teachers often felt uncertain about Chinese cultural norms and communicative styles, which made it difficult for them to interpret their partners’ intentions during daily collaboration. One U.S. teacher shared that he had to observe how the Chinese teachers interacted with one another before he could figure out how to appropriately interact with them. Since Chinese teachers were recruited from China, they might have brought their home cultural approach that favors teacher-fronted lectures (Zhou & Li, 2015). These factors increased the communication costs between Chinese teachers and their colleagues and students, affecting the output of educational work. In the view of many Chinese families, schools are places where children are shaped and guided toward strong academic achievement. Students are anticipated to honor their teachers as figures of authority and adhere to classroom regulations and instructional content without 12 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS hesitation (Xu, 2012). However, the educational philosophy in the United States is studentcentered. Americans perceive schools as environments where students are encouraged to cultivate independence and critical thinking skills (Chen, 2019). Despite the positive findings of previous research, there remains significant gaps in the literature regarding the specific cross-cultural communication challenges faced by Chinese teachers in Chinese immersion programs. These challenges arise from differences in educational philosophies, interpretations of student behavior, and expectations for classroom practices within paired teaching models. Such differences are crucial, as they directly impact teaching effectiveness, teacher-student relationships, the learning atmosphere, and the personal and professional development of teachers. Understanding these challenges and strategies is essential for enhancing the effectiveness of DLI programs and improving the educational experience for both teachers and students in a multicultural setting. Research Purpose To address these gaps, the present study investigates how Chinese DLI teachers experience and navigate cross-cultural communication challenges in their instructional practice. This study employs thematic analysis to identify recurring issues and highlight the strategies teachers use to respond to cultural differences in U.S. classroom contexts. Research Questions Accordingly, this study addressed the following research questions: RQ1: Where do cross-cultural differences or conversations manifest in Chinese immersion teaching contexts? RQ2: What strategies do Chinese teachers employ in their teaching practice in the United States to address cross-cultural communication? 13 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Data and Methods This study employed a case study methodology, comparing an experienced teacher and a new teacher to examine the differences in cross-cultural communication challenges and strategies. Data analysis utilized grounded theory methods (Corbin, 2017) and phenomenology (Smith, 2018) as complementary methods. Through this approach, data and contextual information from multiple sources were collected to explore the cross-cultural communication experiences of Chinese teachers in Chinese immersion programs. To ensure the validity and depth of the data, a triangulation approach was used (Bans-Akutey & Tiimub, 2021), drawing on three sources: interviews, observations, and participants' reflections. Participants Prior to participant recruitment, this study received approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Weber State University. After receiving approval, I recruited two participants for this study, both of whom were teaching in Chinese immersion programs at elementary schools in Utah, United States, at the time of the study. Both teachers were raised and educated in China. One teacher was an experienced teacher with many years of teaching experience in the program, while the other was a novice in the program. The first interviewed Chinese teacher, Teacher A, was from Henan and was 31 years old. She had earned her bachelor’s degree in Translation (Chinese–English), with a focus on written translation, in China. She later obtained a Master’s degree in educational leadership in the United States. At the time of the study, she had been teaching first-grade Chinese Dual Language Immersion (DLI) in the U.S. for five years. The second interviewed Chinese teacher, Teacher B, was from Taiwan and was 25 years old. She received her bachelor’s degree in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language in Taiwan. 14 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS She completed a one-year internship in the United States during 2020–2021 and returned in 2022. At the time of the study, she had taught in the U.S. Chinese DLI program for two years: in the first year she taught first grade, and in the second year she taught both first and third grades. Participant recruitment occurred through two pathways. Teacher A was recruited during an in-person interaction at a local Chinese community event. After an informal conversation about the study, she agreed to participate. We subsequently confirmed the interview time through WeChat, using a brief series of messages exchanged over the next two days. Teacher B was recruited with the assistance of my thesis chair, who initiated the contact. After she agreed to participate, the interview arrangements were finalized through her professional work email. Data Collection Procedures Data for this study were collected through three primary sources: semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and participant reflections. Semi-structured interviews served as the primary source of data for this study. Each interview was scheduled in advance through the participant’s preferred communication platform (WeChat for Teacher A; email for Teacher B). All interviews were conducted in person and in Mandarin Chinese inside each participant’s classroom to provide a familiar and comfortable setting. At the beginning of each session, I reviewed the purpose and procedures of the study and obtained verbal consent to audio-record the conversation. I used the built-in Voice Memos application on an iPhone to record each interview, placing the device on the table between the participant and myself to ensure clear audio quality. Each interview lasted approximately 45–60 minutes and followed a semi-structured interview guide consisting of four main questions: (1) What cross-cultural experiences have you encountered in your teaching role? (2) How did those experiences impact you at the time? (3) 15 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS What specific actions did you take to navigate these cultural differences? (4) If you encounter similar situations in the future, what potential resources might you have? Consistent with qualitative interview practices, the interviews were conducted in a flexible manner, allowing follow-up questions to emerge naturally from the participants’ responses (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). To encourage rich and detailed descriptions of their experiences, I used prompts such as “Could you elaborate on that?”, “Can you provide an example?”, “Do you still recall your feelings?”, and “Do you have any suggestions?” Please refer to Table 1 for a summary of the interview questions. Table 1 Connection Between Research Questions and Interview Questions Research Questions 1. Where do cross-cultural differences or conversations manifest in Chinese immersion teaching contexts? Interview Questions Explanation Interview Question (1) directly (1) What cross-cultural addresses the cross-cultural experiences have you experiences faced by teachers, encountered in your directly corresponding to Research teaching role? Question 1. Interview Question (2) explores the (2) How did those impact of these experiences, experiences impact you indirectly supporting Research at the time? Question 1 by providing insights into the effects of the experiences faced. Interview Question (3) inquires about (3) What specific the strategies used to address cross2. What strategies do Chinese actions did you take to teachers employ in their teaching navigate this cultural cultural, directly corresponding to Research Question 2, focusing on the practice in the United States to difference? strategies employed. address cross-cultural communication? (4) If you encounter Interview Question (4) discusses similar situations in the potential resources for future future, what potential situations, supporting Research resources might you Question 2 by exploring future 16 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Research Questions Interview Questions Explanation have? strategies and resources. To supplement the interview data, I conducted classroom observations to better understand how teachers navigated cross-cultural communication in their authentic instructional practices. For Teacher A, I carried out a partial-day observation in her classroom, which allowed me to see her typical interactions with students, her instructional routines, and the cultural nuances embedded in her teaching. During this visit, I also took notes to capture noteworthy moments and culturally influenced teacher–student exchanges. Although I did not observe the earliest morning routines, the visit provided valuable and meaningful insight into her real-time instructional decision-making. For Teacher B, the interview took place during the summer break when school was not in session, so in-person observation was not possible. To provide an alternative form of observational data, she shared a teaching video from the previous school year. I also took notes while watching the video to capture important details that would not be evident from memory alone. Reviewing the recording helped me understand her instructional style and the ways she interacted with students in her classroom setting. Observational Notes To ensure that the observational data were collected in a systematic and replicable manner, I followed a consistent procedure for generating observational notes for both teachers. These notes were designed to capture detailed accounts of instructional routines, cross-cultural communication behaviors, and real-time teacher–student interactions, and they served as an important supplementary data source that complemented and triangulated the interview findings. For Teacher A, observational notes were produced during a partial-day, in-person 17 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS classroom observation. Throughout the visit, I continuously wrote handwritten notes with timestamped entries to capture the sequence of classroom events. I recorded teacher explanations, verbal and nonverbal behaviors, student responses and participation patterns, and contextual details such as the arrangement of the classroom and posted visual materials. After leaving the school, I immediately expanded these handwritten notes into full descriptive observational notes, adding clarifications and reflections while the details were still fresh. For Teacher B, observational notes were generated using a classroom video recording, as an in-person observation was not possible during summer break. I watched the recording twice. In the first viewing, I took time-stamped notes documenting instructional sequences, transitions, and teacher–student interactions. In the second viewing, I added annotations related specifically to cross-cultural communication, including scaffolding strategies, behavioral expectations, peersupport interactions, and patterns of teacher–student discourse. The video allowed me to observe some aspects of the classroom environment, such as portions of the classroom layout, wall decorations, and certain posted visual materials, which helped maintain consistency with the observational focus used for Teacher A. However, because the camera captured only part of the room, additional contextual elements may not have been visible and could have had an unknown effect on classroom interactions. To ensure comparability across both teachers, the notes for Teacher B were organized chronologically and followed the same analytic focus as those created for Teacher A. Across both teachers, the observational notes were treated as qualitative data and used to triangulate the interview findings. All interview recordings were transcribed within 24 hours of completion. I first used “通 义听悟” (Tongyi Tingwu), an online automated transcription platform, to generate initial 18 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS transcripts. I then manually reviewed each transcript by listening to the audio while checking the text line by line, correcting errors. After the interviews were transcribed, the participants were given the opportunity to review their transcripts. They were invited to clarify, expand upon, or refine any of their responses. No substantial revisions or additional comments were submitted. Although no major changes were made, the availability of this review process supported the credibility and trustworthiness of the interview data. I translated all data sources into English for this thesis. Data Analysis Data analysis was conducted using grounded theory methodology and phenomenology as complementary approaches. Grounded theory is a data-driven method that focuses on identifying patterns and relationships within the data to generate theory from the data themselves (Corbin, 2017). This method supported the systematic exploration of recurring issues related to crosscultural communication in Chinese immersion classrooms. Phenomenology emphasizes the examination of lived experiences (Smith, 2018), allowing the analysis to attend closely to the teachers’ subjective lived experiences and the meanings they assigned to their interactions in cross-cultural environments. Because the data sources reflected the teachers’ own narratives, phenomenology provided an appropriate framework for interpreting the subjective meanings they associated with their teaching experiences and how they consciously made sense of those experiences. Once all interview transcripts and observational materials were prepared, I organized the data to ensure readiness for analysis. This step followed the data-wrangling principles described by Smith et al. (2009) and aligned with grounded theory’s emphasis on systematic preparation (Noble & Mitchell, 2016) and phenomenology’s requirement for clear, detailed representations 19 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS of lived experience (Moustakas, 1994). The process of classifying and coding these patterns aligned with the core principles of both grounded theory and phenomenology. From a grounded theory perspective, organizing the data in this way supported the systematic identification of patterns that could contribute to conceptual understanding (Charmaz, 2012). From a phenomenological perspective, the analysis ensured close attention to the teachers’ subjective experiences and the meanings they assigned to their cross-cultural encounters (van Manen, 1990). A comparative case analysis was then conducted to examine similarities and differences between the two teachers. Their experiences were compared across interactions with students, colleagues, and parents, as well as in their responses to cultural challenges. This comparison enriched the understanding of both shared and unique aspects of their cross-cultural communication experiences. Grounded theory methodology contributed by highlighting universal patterns (Corbin, 2017), while phenomenology provided deeper conscious insight into individual experiences (Giorgi, 2009). Throughout the analysis, themes were triangulated across interviews, observations, and participant reflections to strengthen the credibility of the findings. Participants were also given the opportunity to review their interview transcripts, which further enhanced the trustworthiness of the data. Through this systematic and iterative process, the analysis generated themes that reflected both recurring patterns and the nuanced lived experiences of the teachers in the Chinese dual language immersion context. After the data were organized, I conducted open coding across all interview transcripts as well as the classroom observation notes for Teacher A and the video-based observation notes for Teacher B. Line by line, I identified recurring concepts related to cross-cultural communication. 20 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS These initial codes reflected both the challenges the teachers encountered and the strategies they used. Following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis procedures, I then categorized and grouped these recurring codes into broader themes. Through this iterative process, six central themes were generated, highlighting classroom management challenges shaped by cultural expectations, shifts in instructional philosophy and teacher roles, cross-cultural communication with parents, collaboration with English partner teachers as a key support system, the influence of workplace culture and PLCs, and the integration of cultural elements to enhance student engagement. Results This section presents the key findings that emerged from the data collected for this study. As stated above, to ensure the credibility of the analysis, the themes were developed by considering multiple pieces of evidence and examining their consistency within the broader dataset. The findings for Teacher A and Teacher B are presented separately to highlight their individual experiences while also illustrating the common patterns that shaped their adaptation. Teacher A’s Story As introduced earlier, Teacher A had accumulated several years of experience in the Chinese DLI program. Throughout her process of cultural adaptation, I observed both challenges and transformation. The primary data for this case came from in-depth interviews with the teacher, supplemented by classroom observations focusing on both her interactions with students and the physical environment of her classroom. Additional insights emerged through reflective accounts embedded in the interview, where Teacher A revisited and interpreted her own experiences. Together, these sources illustrated how Teacher A actively adapted to classroom norms, pedagogical practices, and communication styles in the U.S. educational context. 21 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Establishing and Enforcing Classroom Rules Teacher A grew up and received most of her education in Luoyang, Henan, where schooling generally emphasized discipline, order, and respect for teacher authority. When she came to the United States to teach first grade in a Chinese dual language immersion program, she immediately sensed how different the classroom culture in the U.S. was from what she had experienced growing up. This difference brought both surprise and a period of adjustment. She noted in her interview that in her home country, “students tend to value classroom discipline and were more likely to follow the teacher’s instructions,” whereas in U.S. classrooms, students’ understanding and implementation of rules “required a long period of training.” Their behavior appeared comparatively “free,” as they liked to have control over their own bodies—moving slightly within their personal space rather than sitting completely still. Later in the interview, she emphasized that this “freedom” did not reflect a lack of respect for teachers but rather a difference in educational philosophy. As an experienced educator, she later learned to allow students reasonable physical movement at their desks instead of insisting on perfect uniformity. This point was also confirmed in the subsequent classroom observations. Recalling her first-year teaching in the immersion program, she described it as especially challenging. Not only was she unfamiliar with the program itself, but the COVID-19 pandemic also made classroom management significantly more difficult. Most of her first graders had missed kindergarten, leaving them with a vague understanding of what “going to school” meant. Health precautions required students to wear masks throughout the day, and language barriers further complicated the situation, as students could not yet understand her Chinese instructions. As she put it, “It was quite a challenge.” Despite the difficulties, she gradually gained valuable experience through reflection and daily practice. She observed that the beginning of each school 22 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS year tended to be particularly chaotic. Students had to transition from half-day kindergarten to full-day schooling, adapt to a more structured schedule, and cope with a new language environment—all factors that contributed to confusion. This early-year adjustment and management phase thus became one of her recurring professional challenges. To establish a well-structured classroom while respecting cultural differences, Teacher A devoted the first one to two months of each semester to strengthening routines and behavioral norms. During my observation of her classroom, I saw that she implemented visual behavior charts, color-coded consequence systems, and consistent verbal cues to clarify expectations. During the interview, Teacher A reflected that rules were reinforced daily and re-taught after each school break to help young learners in a bilingual environment maintain a predictable learning rhythm. Classroom observations showed that she guided students with calm and gentle tones rather than by raising her voice. She used pauses, eye contact, verbal reminders, and gestures to redirect behavior. She also permitted “reasonable physical movement” within students’ personal spaces, balancing classroom order with comfort. Visual charts and colorcoded systems posted at the front of the room helped students clearly understand both expectations and consequences. During my observation, I noted that her interactions with students and the physical layout of her classroom revealed that her management approach maintained collective order while allowing flexibility for individual expression. When students successfully followed routines, she provided positive reinforcement through a reward system displayed at the front of the classroom. Different levels of positive behavior, such as listening attentively, raising hands before speaking, and staying on task during independent work, corresponded to different prizes, including pencils, small stationery items, or small trinkets with Chinese cultural elements. The better the behavior, 23 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS the greater the reward. This visible reinforcement helped motivate students to meet expectations and reduced classroom disruptions, creating a supportive and emotionally positive learning environment. Transformation of the Teacher’s Role In her teaching practice, Teacher A underwent a profound transformation—from a transmitter of knowledge to a facilitator of learning. During her own schooling, memorizing and applying formulas constituted a central part of mathematics education. However, her early teaching experience in Utah challenged this long-held belief. In the interview, she stated that when she first joined the Chinese immersion program, she “did not know how to teach mathematics.” Through professional learning community (PLC) meetings and independent study of instructional materials, she discovered that mathematics teaching in this context emphasized reasoning, questioning, and problem-solving. Students were encouraged to explore multiple strategies based on their individual thinking rather than conforming to a single standard method. In her reflective account, she noted that “My job was mainly to guide them—to guide students to find the method that worked best for them.” Her focus thus shifted from delivering content to fostering student-centered learning. In my classroom observations, I observed this evolving role as a “facilitator of knowledge.” She made flexible use of district-provided teaching resources to guide students in exploring picture books through discussion. Based on the content of the stories, she posed openended and divergent questions, encouraging students to express their ideas freely. In these observations, it was evident that when students encountered unfamiliar words or sentences, she employed multiple scaffolding strategies—such as visual cues, gestures, and body language—to support comprehension. This type of lesson design allowed students to use Chinese in authentic 24 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS contexts, promoting bilingual understanding while enhancing their confidence and active participation in learning. High Expectations for Students In her classroom teaching, Teacher A consistently maintained high expectations for her students. In the interview, she stated that she believed a teacher’s expectations, though often implicit, had a powerful influence on students’ motivation and learning outcomes. In her view, setting goals slightly above students’ current abilities not only encourages them to work harder but also enables them to experience a sense of accomplishment as they surpass their own limits. In the interview, she further described how in first-grade reading instruction, Teacher A intentionally raised the academic bar. She gradually increased the difficulty of reading materials, guiding students to read texts that were previously read only by the teacher, encouraging them to attempt independent reading under support. For her, such high expectations were not a form of academic pressure, but rather a reflection of trust in students’ potential. She explained, “At first, I didn’t expect that much from them, but each year I raised the bar a little higher—and I found they really could do it.” Through her reflective account, she noted that this approach of “appropriately raising expectations” proved to be highly effective in practice. Students’ language proficiency improved significantly, and Teacher A received positive feedback from both parents and colleagues, affirming the success of her belief in students’ capabilities. Home–School Communication In the interview, Teacher A explained that communicating effectively with parents and maintaining a positive home–school relationship was another essential aspect of Teacher A’s professional work. She recalled that in her previous teaching experience in her home country, 25 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS parents seldom questioned teachers’ decisions. Instead, they tended to focus on educating their children at home and cooperating with teachers’ classroom efforts. In the United States, while most parents were generally supportive, some engaged in more extensive discussions about their own child’s needs, hoping teachers would make individual adjustments or modifications. In the interview, she also stated that she did not accommodate every request uncritically, noting, “I have to see whether what they say makes sense.” She described one memorable case in which a parent asked that the standardized math written assessment for the entire grade be replaced with a one-on-one oral test for their child, believing that slow handwriting was affecting the child’s performance. After carefully analyzing the student’s situation and administering an additional handwriting-speed assessment, she concluded that the main difficulty lay not in writing speed but in the child’s comprehension of the material. While respecting the parent’s concern, she maintained the written test format, but supplemented it with extra practice and support. She also communicated her rationale clearly, explaining why maintaining the standard assessment was pedagogically necessary. By grounding her response in data while remaining flexible to support individual needs, she ultimately reached a cooperative understanding with the parent—striking a balance between parental expectations and instructional principles. In her reflective account, she noted that acknowledging parents’ concerns and viewing them as opportunities for instructional improvement could be highly constructive. In fact, this case prompted her to begin administering handwriting-speed checks for all students before each exam. Through this process, she identified another student who truly struggled due to slow writing and provided individualized accommodations accordingly. English Partner as a Key Resource In the interview, teacher A emphasized that her English partner played a significant role 26 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS in her process of cultural adaptation. “My English partner,” she explained, “was a local who understood things much better—why students behave in certain ways and why things were done this way in this culture.” She regarded her English partner as a bridge that helped her learn how to communicate effectively within the U.S. school context. She gave an example during the interview: in her previous teaching experience back home, teachers usually addressed issues directly when communicating with parents. However, she observed that her English partner always began emails by highlighting the child’s strengths before gently raising any concerns. Following this model, Teacher A started asking her partner to review her messages to ensure that the tone and phrasing were culturally appropriate, clear, yet polite. Through this close collaboration, her communication style became more tactful and aligned with U.S. educational norms. She also noted in her reflective comments that she and her English partner worked together to establish consistent classroom expectations. They ensured that students understood that both teachers held the same standards of behavior and performance across the Chinese and English classes, preventing students from treating the two teachers differently. This consistency helped create a sense of unity within the dual language classroom and reinforced students’ respect for both teachers. Professional Development and Workplace Environment Beyond the classroom, Teacher A’s process of adaptation was also reflected in her active participation in various professional development sessions and cultural events organized by the school and the district. The grade-level PLC meetings played a vital role in supporting her professional growth. At the beginning of her teaching career, she was unfamiliar with the Chinese Dual Language Immersion (DLI) program and lacked experience in teaching 27 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS mathematics within a different cultural context. In the interview, she stated that through the PLC meetings, she received valuable guidance and support from her colleagues, which helped her gradually adjust her teaching practices. She also emphasized in the interview that the school administration placed great importance on teachers’ well-being. During her first year, as a new teacher who often stayed late to finish work, both the principal and the office manager would pass by her classroom and gently remind her to go home earlier and maintain a healthy work–life balance. “I feel this is a very warm and caring place,” she reflected. The district likewise paid attention to teachers’ wellness by organizing various activities to help them relieve stress. She felt that not only her work, but also her personal well-being, were genuinely cared for. Teacher A further noted in her reflective account that in U.S. schools, teachers’ classrooms often function as their offices as well. They spent most of their time with students, and communication with colleagues was mainly work-focused rather than social. She appreciated this structure, explaining that “socializing feels easier this way—there aren’t many complications.” This arrangement, she believed, reduced social pressure and allowed her to focus more comfortably on her teaching and professional responsibilities. Cultural Engagement Enhancing Instruction Teacher A integrated cultural elements into her daily teaching. In the interview, she explained that during regular lessons, she used video materials to show students different cities in China, which attracted their interest. During the Chinese New Year celebration, she led her students to participate in the district’s Chinese New Year performance. The students wore Qipao and Tang suits, and even the parents dressed in traditional Chinese clothing. She described it by saying, “The attendance that day was even higher than on regular school days.” 28 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS As she noted in her interview, this way of integrating cultural elements into teaching and allowing students to experience culture greatly stimulated their learning interest. Such a classroom helped students see the culture behind the language, not just the language itself. From my classroom observations, it was evident that her classroom also created a visual and culturally immersive environment for students. She hung Chinese learning charts on the walls, while students’ hand-drawn Chinese lanterns were posted around the classroom. These observed details reflected her effort to create an authentic language environment, allowing students to naturally acquire Chinese in a visible and tangible cultural atmosphere and to feel the vitality of both the language and the culture. Through this series of growth experiences, Teacher A developed from a teacher unfamiliar with the program into an experienced and mature educator. She found a balance between Eastern and Western educational philosophies, discovered a new rhythm between structure and flexibility, and achieved strong instructional results, earning positive feedback from both students and parents. Teacher B’s Story Establishing Classroom Routines and a Sense of Time In her teaching practice, Teacher B placed particular emphasis on building stable classroom routines. In the interview, she recalled that during her first year of teaching, she did not realize the importance of this at first. Over time, however, she gradually discovered that classroom order and learning efficiency largely depended on whether students clearly understood what they should be doing at the moment and what would come next. Beginning in her second year, she devoted time at the start of the school year to help students establish clear daily procedures. Each morning, as the children entered the classroom, they naturally followed the 29 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS established sequence to begin their day. This consistent rhythm helped students become familiar with classroom operations; even without reminders from the teacher, they could carry out each task on their own. From the instructional video I reviewed, I also observed that students responded quickly to her directions, allowing smooth transitions between activities and maintaining an efficient learning flow. This video observation complemented her description of classroom routines and showed how they functioned in practice. In her view, such routines not only helped students develop a sense of time but also made classroom operations smoother. She found that when students understood the rhythm of each segment, their learning became more active and efficient. In the interview, she explained that for lower-grade students, time-management skills were still in the formative stage, and she believed that helping students establish a structured learning rhythm from the beginning contributed to the stability of classroom management. According to her, it usually took one to two months for children to emerge from their own “little worlds” and learn to follow a shared classroom rhythm. She felt that once this routine was established, classroom order tended to take shape more naturally, allowing her to devote more time to instruction rather than management. As she gained more experience, she came to see these routines not only as a way to keep order but also as supports for young children’s early development of self-management, allowing them to participate in daily learning with greater focus, confidence, and independence. Shift in Teaching Philosophy In the interview, Teacher B observed that students in the U.S. differed noticeably from the children she had taught in her home country: “Students in the U.S. are much more willing to speak up. In class, the teacher is less like giving a lecture and more like engaging in a discussion with students. The amount of time students talk is almost equal to that of the teacher.” 30 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Classrooms in the United States emphasized interaction and expression, whereas in her previous teaching context, students were more accustomed to listening quietly. Particularly in elementary school, classes were typically teacher-centered, leaving limited opportunities for student discussion. As she further explained in the interview, through her teaching practice, she came to realize that education in the U.S. placed greater emphasis on exploration and the process of thinking, especially in mathematics instruction, where this contrast became even more apparent. The focus of the lesson was not on the teacher demonstrating a single solution first, but rather on encouraging students to think independently, to experiment, and to explore multiple possible solutions through open-ended discussion—without rushing to reach the “correct” answer. She remarked that this difference was significant, and she felt that it helped her better understand how the U.S. educational system prioritizes the cultivation of students’ thinking, shaping how she interpreted different approaches to learning. From the instructional video I reviewed, I also observed that during mathematics lessons she encouraged students to notice numerical patterns and to examine problems from different angles, guiding them to infer underlying rules on their own. This video-based evidence further illustrated how her instructional practice aligned with the exploratory and student-centered approaches she described in the interview. Through this shift, Teacher B gradually moved from a teacher-centered model to a student-centered approach, allowing students to construct mathematical understanding through inquiry rather than repetition. She described this change not as a transformation in her pedagogical beliefs but as a conscious belief that adopting a more student-centered approach would be better understood and received within the U.S. classroom context. At the same time, her reflections suggested that teaching in this way prompted her to see her role differently, 31 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS moving from a transmitter of knowledge to a facilitator of student thinking. In her account, this was an intentional adjustment to the communicative expectations she encountered in U.S. classrooms rather than a personal evolution, and it aligned with broader trends in immersion pedagogy that emphasize student agency and active participation in the learning process. Peer Support and Instructional Focus Teacher B placed particular emphasis on the importance of peer support, a point she discussed in the interview when describing her classroom teaching. She found that first graders, who were just beginning to learn Chinese, were full of curiosity and a sense of accomplishment about the language. Students often took the initiative to help their classmates, creating a lively and collaborative learning atmosphere. “They often feel proud that they can speak a second language, so they are especially willing to help others,” she noted. She actively encouraged this type of interaction, believing that peer support provided a safe and encouraging environment for lower-proficiency students to make continuous progress, while also fostering a positive overall classroom climate. In her reflections, she also recognized that such peer interactions helped students develop confidence, empathy, and a sense of shared responsibility—qualities that are particularly important in early immersion settings. She clarified in the interview that in her teaching practice, Teacher B focused her instructional attention on the “middle group” of students. She explained that if instruction moved entirely at the pace of the high-achieving students, most learners would struggle to keep up, which could weaken their confidence and engagement. Instead, she preferred to design lessons at a level that most students could understand and master, allowing more proficient students to assist their peers in reaching that level: “I like to design lessons based on the level of the middle students so that most of them can follow, and those who are stronger can help others reach that 32 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS level more quickly—then we can all move forward together.” From her description and classroom practices, it was clear that she believed instructional pacing should promote equitable access while still leveraging the strengths of advanced learners as informal peer tutors.This approach—centering instruction on the majority while integrating peer support—created a more balanced classroom rhythm and a more inclusive learning environment. As students learned and grew together through collaboration, Chinese learning became not only more meaningful, but also a shared experience that nurtured a stable and positive classroom community. Home–School Communication One of the challenges of teaching in the United States, as Teacher B explained in the interview, was communication with parents. She noted that in dual immersion programs, Chinese teachers often found themselves in a relatively disadvantaged position, as parents were generally more accustomed to communicating with the English teacher. “If you don’t often write to people from another cultural background, it’s hard to judge what kind of expression is considered polite or appropriate,” she explained. This, she emphasized, was not merely a matter of language but also of perception—some parents tended to view the English teacher as the primary teacher, while the Chinese teacher was seen as someone who teaches an additional language course, even though instructional time is equally divided between the two languages. Her comments revealed the differences in role expectations in dual immersion programs, where linguistic unfamiliarity and cultural expectations often shaped parents’ perceptions of teacher roles. During her first year of teaching, she noted in the interview, communication with parents was not smooth. Both she and her English partner were new teachers with limited experience and had not yet established a consistent communication routine. In her second year, however, she took the initiative to meet with her new English partner before the school year began to clarify 33 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS their communication methods, the frequency of parent contact, and shared principles for classroom management. “We discussed all the communication routines and classroom expectations before school started so that parents could feel we were one team,” she said. This early alignment demonstrated her growing understanding that proactive and unified communication was essential for building trust in a bilingual teaching team. The two teachers then developed a consistent communication practice by sending out a jointly written weekly newsletter. This shared format ensured that parents received the same information from both classrooms and supported a unified instructional message. Parents were encouraged to reply to both teachers simultaneously, and all correspondence was copied to both sides. Teacher B observed that this approach changed the way many families interacted with the teaching team, noting that parents began responding to both teachers together and communicating with them in similar ways. In the interview, she reflected that this synchronized communication helped families recognize the partnership between the English and Chinese teachers, allowing parents to feel more comfortable engaging with both. Her reflections suggested an awareness of how communication practices shaped parent perceptions and how intentional coordination contributed to a more balanced relational dynamic between the two teachers. Teacher B also found that consistent communication between teachers had a direct impact on students’ classroom behavior. When students understood that the two teachers functioned as a team, their conduct in both language classrooms became more consistent. “They know that if they are disrespectful in the Chinese class, their English teacher will also care,” she explained. She added in her reflective comments that this sense of teacher unity not only supported classroom management but also helped students maintain stable learning attitudes 34 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS across both linguistic settings. In reflecting on her experience, Teacher B noted in the interview that U.S. parents tended to express their opinions more directly than those she had encountered in her previous teaching environment. “Sometimes when a child complains at home, the parent will just tell the teacher how to teach,” she said. She recognized that teachers needed to approach such feedback with openness and professionalism. She recalled a particularly memorable incident: she and her partner decided to temporarily suspend football games during recess because students frequently argued and fought while playing. One parent strongly opposed the decision and wrote a long email, insisting that the teachers were neglecting students’ physical development. As she recounted in the interview, instead of responding to the parents individually, the two teachers addressed the issue in the next weekly newsletter, explaining the reasons behind their decision. A few weeks later, the students learned to play more peacefully, and the activity was reinstated. Teacher B reflected that communicating again through the newsletter helped parents understand the reasoning behind the teachers’ decision, which gradually resolved the conflict. She also acknowledged that parents’ concerns and expectations toward education varied widely. Sometimes it meant that even when a teacher’s decision was made based on professional judgment and the best interests of all students, it could still be misunderstood or questioned. The Importance of an English Partner Teacher B believed that having a partner teacher in a dual immersion program was both fortunate and essential. In the interview, she emphasized that the relationship between the English and Chinese teachers was not merely one of division of labor, but one of mutual learning and professional support. “We work really close together, and that’s important. It helps us learn 35 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS so much,” she said. Her comments highlighted her recognition that successful immersion teaching relied on shared expertise rather than isolated practice. She explained that although her partner entered the school in the same year, the partner had completed formal education training in the United States and thus had a more systematic understanding of classroom management, student behavioral expectations, and instructional routines, as well as greater familiarity with how U.S. schools operate. As she noted in the interview, in contrast, although Teacher B herself was trained as an education major in her home country, her coursework did not include the specific practices and frameworks of the U.S. education system. As a result, when she encountered practical challenges, she often needed additional time to explore and adapt. In her reflective comments, she described that collaborating closely with her English partner proved to be far more effective than trying to solve problems on her own. Through frequent discussion and shared reflection, she not only gained insight into the expectations and structures of U.S. classrooms but also developed a stronger sense of confidence and belonging within her teaching community. By relying on collaborative problem-solving rather than independent trial-and-error, she demonstrated a growing understanding of how professional communities support teacher development in immersion programs. Team Collaboration and Professional Growth Teacher B believed that close collaboration with her English partner and other gradelevel teachers was a key factor for success in dual immersion teaching. In the interview, she emphasized that working with English teachers from the same grade often brought fresh insights and new ideas. “Even though they are not Chinese teachers, they often come up with activities or resources that I hadn’t thought of, and I can contribute ideas they might not have considered,” 36 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS she explained. This kind of cross-disciplinary collaboration allowed her to experience the collective strength of teamwork and to broaden her approach to instructional design. Teacher B highlighted that collaboration at the grade level was often more impactful than discussions limited to Chinese teachers’ PLC meetings. As she further noted in the interview, English teachers typically brought extensive local teaching experience and curricular resources, while Chinese teachers contributed cultural perspectives and language-focused instructional creativity. Together, they supported one another and shared resources, creating lessons that were more coherent and innovative. Through these experiences, she recognized that effective dual immersion instruction relied on the integration of diverse expertise across cultural and linguistic backgrounds. In her reflective comments, she observed that many Chinese teachers tended to focus primarily on collaborating with their immediate English partner, and might not always take initiative to engage in broader team collaboration. In her experience, however, actively participating in grade-level meetings and openly sharing ideas with colleagues fostered stronger trust and more effective teamwork. This broader collaboration not only enhanced her professional growth but also enriched the overall learning experience for students. This shift also marked an important step in her own professional development, as she learned to draw on a wider network of colleagues to strengthen both her teaching and her confidence. Cultural Activities as a Pathway to Language Learning Teacher B believed that festival activities were the part of dual immersion teaching that most vividly brought the classroom to life. In the interview, she recalled that one of the most striking differences she noticed after coming to teach in the United States was the importance that schools placed on celebrating festivals. “In my home country, we often worry about falling 37 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS behind schedule,” she explained. “But here, even if the curriculum slows down a little, teachers will still make special arrangements for holiday activities.” In her teaching, Teacher B regarded festivals as valuable opportunities to connect language learning with cultural understanding. As she explained in the interview, during Thanksgiving, for example, she led students in learning related vocabulary and songs. She found that when students were able to connect what they learned in class to their real lives, their learning became more engaging and effective. This connection between curriculum and conscious subjective experience reflected her emerging understanding of experiential learning as a powerful tool in early immersion classrooms. By intentionally slowing the instructional pace and integrating cultural and everyday experiences into her lessons, she created a more subjective and emotionally resonant language environment. In this atmosphere, students were able to understand culture through hands-on participation and experience the joy of learning through meaningful interaction. Teacher B’s story illustrated the growth of a young educator navigating a cross-cultural teaching environment. From the initial confusion of her early classroom experiences to developing mutual understanding and collaboration with students, parents, and her teaching partner, she gradually formed her own educational beliefs through continuous exploration and reflection. Discussion This study examined the cross-cultural teaching experiences of two Chinese Dual Language Immersion (DLI) teachers working in the United States, each representing a different stage of professional development—one a veteran educator and the other an early-career teacher. Their narratives, supported by classroom observations and teaching artifacts, revealed both 38 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS shared strategies and distinct adaptive pathways in classroom management, instructional design, parent communication, and professional collaboration. These findings echo prior studies emphasizing the importance of teachers’ cultural awareness and reflective practices in shaping effective cross-cultural pedagogy (Zhou & Li, 2015; Chen, 2019). Where Cross-Cultural Differences Are Manifested (RQ1) Across both cases, cross-cultural differences were primarily manifested in four areas: classroom management and student behavior, pedagogical expectations and teacher roles, parent communication, and workplace culture and support. These themes showed that differences between Chinese and U.S. educational norms shaped how teachers organized daily routines, interacted with students, communicated with families, and engaged with their professional communities. Together, these findings answered RQ1 by identifying the specific aspects of teaching where cultural frameworks directly influenced classroom practice. Classroom Management and Student Behavior First difference that was noticed by teachers in this study was classroom and behavioral management. Teacher A observed that U.S. students displayed more casual behaviors that they themselves did not perceive as disrespectful. She faced recurring challenges at the beginning of each school year, as first graders transitioned from half-day kindergarten to full-day programs in a language they did not yet understand. This pattern was consistent with Chen (2019), who found that Chinese immersion teachers often struggled with U.S. students’ more relaxed behavioral norms, noting that behavior-management cues commonly used in Chinese classrooms were frequently ineffective in U.S. settings. In this study, both teachers found that sustained and consistent reinforcement of classroom rules was an effective way to support students’ understanding of behavioral expectations. Their shared observations highlight how differing 39 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS cultural expectations surrounding respect, autonomy, and teacher authority shape daily classroom interactions. Pedagogical Expectations and Teacher Roles A second difference identified in this study involved pedagogical expectations and the role of the teacher. Both teachers emphasized the U.S. mathematics approach that prioritizes student thinking, exploration, and discussion of multiple solution paths over direct answers. Teacher A described a shift from the role of “knowledge transmitter” to “facilitator of learning”. This shift in instructional roles echoed a broader pattern identified in existing research. Consistent with Zhou and Li’s (2015) analysis, Chinese immersion teachers often enter U.S. classrooms with a teacher-centered orientation shaped by their own schooling, but gradually adopt a more student-centered stance. Parent Communication Third challenge that was reported by the teachers in this study was communication with parents. Although the specific situations differed, both teachers encountered moments when parents’ expectations or assumptions challenged their professional decisions, requiring them to clarify instructional choices and explain their reasoning more explicitly. These experiences aligned with previous research. Xu (2012) found that U.S. parents often stand firmly on their children’s side and may question teachers’ decisions. Similarly, Zhou and Li (2015) observed that parents frequently direct communication to the English-speaking teacher rather than the Chinese immersion teacher and emphasized that expanding immersion teacher preparation is essential for strengthening teachers’ cross-cultural instructional practices and supporting a smoother transition into U.S. classrooms. 40 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS Workplace Culture and Support Finally, both teachers identified workplace culture as an important area of cross-cultural adjustment. While Teacher A emphasized the district’s strong focus on teacher well-being—such as wellness initiatives and reminders to maintain work–life balance—Teacher B highlighted the importance of clear communication and collegial collaboration within her grade-level team. Together, their experiences showed how workplace culture shaped their adjustment and sense of professional belonging. These observations also resonate with research on workplace mindfulness, which shows that organizational cultures emphasizing well-being, emotional support, and balance can significantly enhance teachers’ adjustment and professional resilience (Roeser et al., 2012; Hwang et al., 2017). How Teachers Respond to Cross-Cultural Challenges (RQ2) To navigate cross-cultural challenges, both teachers relied on five interconnected strategies: establishing consistent routines, adjusting their instructional stance, shifting their professional roles, engaging in collaborative structures, and integrating cultural experiences into teaching. These strategies enabled them to respond more effectively to unfamiliar classroom norms, diverse student behaviors, and differing parent expectations. Together, these themes answered RQ2 by showing how Chinese DLI teachers actively adapt their practices to meet the demands of the U.S. educational context. Routines The first strategy that teachers in this study identified for responding to cross-cultural challenges was establishing classroom routines during the first one to two months. Teacher A used visual tools, clear behavioral expectations, and consistent reinforcement, while Teacher B focused on structured daily procedures that helped students develop time awareness and 41 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS smoother transitions. Their approaches echo previous findings by Wang (2008), who found that consistent routines and visual support are essential scaffolds for young learners in Chinese immersion settings. Instructional Stance The second strategy that emerged from the data was how teachers positioned themselves instructionally in response to classroom challenges. Teacher A maintained high expectations for all learners, introducing appropriately challenging tasks to motivate growth. Teacher B prioritized mid-level learners while providing scaffolds for varying proficiency levels, deliberately fostering peer support. These stances illustrate two complementary models for managing mixed-proficiency immersion . To my knowledge, literature does not mention such models in connection to dual immersion yet, which makes the contributions of this study unique. Role Shifts The third strategy involved adapting their professional roles to meet cross-cultural classroom expectations. Teacher A explicitly repositioned herself from a knowledge transmitter to a facilitator of learning. This shift marked a significant departure from her prior educational experience, which emphasized teacher-centered delivery and memorization, and instead highlighted the importance of guiding exploration, fostering discussion, and supporting students in constructing their own understanding. A similar pattern has been documented in prior studies, which show that Chinese immersion teachers often transition from authoritative, teachercentered roles to more flexible, student-centered facilitators in U.S. and cross-cultural contexts (Wang, 2008; Zhou & Li, 2015). Collaboration Structures Next, teachers discussed the collaboration structures that supported their instructional 42 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS work. Teacher A drew on Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) as her main source of instructional support, whereas Teacher B benefited from grade-level collaboration and crosspartner exchanges. Both patterns highlighted the importance of flexible collaboration ecologies tailored to local contexts. This pattern aligns with findings by He et al. (2022), who showed that Chinese DLI teachers benefit from PLC structures that offer shared planning, instructional dialogue, and collaborative problem-solving. Cultural Integration Finally, cultural integration emerged as an important aspect of both teachers’ practice. Both teachers leveraged cultural events to connect language and culture, strengthen student motivation, and enhance family–school recognition. For example, they taught festival-related vocabulary and incorporated simple hands-on activities during celebrations. Students and families responded positively to these events, and students became more active and engaged in their learning. This approach aligns with Lessow-Hurley’s (2012) argument that culturally meaningful experiences enhance student engagement and strengthen the connection between language learning and cultural understanding. Limitations This study examined two cases within a single state context and involved unequal opportunities for classroom observation (for example, Teacher B’s classroom was not ready for observation at the scheduled time). The small number of cases and the single-context design limit the generalizability of the findings and may amplify individual dispositions or site-specific influences. Data from 7-8 more teachers would contribute to richer insights into the challenges and strategies Chinese teachers in Dual Immersion use. Future research could also expand the scope of this research by including additional sites, conducting longitudinal observations, and 43 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS incorporating parent and student perspectives to triangulate the findings and assess the durability of teachers’ strategies across varying settings. Conclusion By examining the cases of Teacher A and Teacher B, this study illustrates how crosscultural differences shape teachers’ daily practice in Chinese dual immersion classrooms. The findings show that these differences appear not only in classroom management, instructional philosophy, parent communication, and workplace culture, but also in the ways teachers negotiate their professional roles. Rather than functioning merely as technical adjustments, these processes reflect how teachers consciously and subjectively interpret expectations within a new educational system and how they reposition themselves in response, pattern consistent with intercultural competence frameworks that emphasize ongoing interpretation and meaning making (Deardorff, 2006). Both teachers relied on early routine-building, collaborative work with teaching partners, and intentional integration of cultural activities, yet their approaches diverged in meaningful ways. Differences in instructional stance (high expectations for all vs. mid-level anchoring), collaboration structures (PLC participation vs. grade-level teamwork), and communication practices (data-informed responses vs. unified newsletters) suggest that adaptation is shaped by individual beliefs, school-level supports, and the cultural norms embedded in each local context. Such variation aligns with research showing that collaboration structures, such as PLCs, shape teachers’ access to professional and decisional resources (He et al., 2022), thereby influencing how teachers navigate instructional decisions. Recent studies also find that immersion teachers continually recalibrate their instructional and communicative approaches as they respond to the evolving demands of classroom interactions (Xiong, 2024). These contrasts highlight that cross- 44 CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION CHALLENGES FOR CHINESE TEACHERS cultural teaching does not follow a single model; rather, teachers make context-dependent decisions influenced by the resources, expectations, and relationships within their school environments. These findings suggest that cross-cultural adaptation in DLI classrooms is not a singular pathway, but a context-sensitive process shaped by local norms, team structures, and individual choices. Prior research similarly emphasizes that immersion teachers engage in ongoing, systematic cross-cultural adjustment as they negotiate new instructional expectations, interactional norms, and school cultures (Liao et al., 2017). Studies of Chinese immersion teachers further show that such adaptation is influenced by the resources, supports, and collaborative opportunities available to them, rather than by any single instructional model (Chen et al., 2024). 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